解放军文职招聘考试英语国家概况复习笔记

 
英语国家概况复习笔记

Chapter 1  Land and People 英国的国土与人民
Different Names for Britain and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分
1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰.
2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国.
3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands—Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.
不列颠群岛由两个大岛［大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛］及成千上万个小岛组成.
4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.大不列颠岛上有三个政区:英格兰,苏格兰和威尔士.
①England is in the southern part of Great Britain.It is the largest, most populous section. 位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区.
②Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh. 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部.它有三大自然区：北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵.首府：爱丁堡.
③Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff  威尔士位于大不列颠的西部.首府：加的夫
④Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.  北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域.首府：贝尔法斯特
5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain.Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading agreements.The Commonwealth has no special powers.The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.英联邦是一个自由联合体,由曾是英国殖民地而现在已经独立的国家构成.成员国之间实行经济合作,有一定的贸易协议.英联邦没有特别的权利,是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定.它成立于1931年,到1991年止已有50个成员国.   
Chapter 2  The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)  英国的起源
1.Arrival and settlement of the Celts      At about 700 BC the Celts began to arrive in Britain and kept coming until the arrival of the Romans.They may come originally from eastern and central Europe,now France,Belgium and southern Germany.约公元前700年,凯尔特人来到不列颠岛并一直陆续到来直到罗马人的入侵.他们可能源自东欧和中欧,即现在的法国,比利时和德国南部.         They came in three main waves:the Gaels~about 600 BC;the Brythons~about 400 BC;the Belgae~about 150 BC.凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮:第一次是约公元前600年的盖尔人;第二次是约公元前400年的布立吞人;第三次是约公元前150年的贝尔盖人.     The Celtic tribes are the ancestors of the Highland Scots,the Irish and the Welsh,and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic.凯尔特人是山地苏格兰人,爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先,他们的语言是威尔士语和盖尔语的基础.   The Celts’ religion was Druidism. 凯尔特人的宗教为德鲁伊德教.   The Belgae were the most industrious and vigorous of the Celtic tribes.贝尔盖人是最勤奋,最精力充沛的. The Celts were practised farmers. 凯尔特人是有经验的农民.
2.Basis of modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons现代英国人的基础:盎格鲁—萨克逊 (446-871)     In the mid-5th century Jutes,Saxons, and Angles came to Britain.They were three Teutonic tribes.The Jutes,who fished and farmed in Jutland(now southern Denmark),came to Britain first.Then the Saxons came.They came from northern Germany,established their kingdoms in Essex, Sussex and Wessex. In the second half of the 6th century,the Angles who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. 五世纪中叶,朱特人,撒克逊人和盎格鲁人来到不列颠岛.这是三支日耳曼部落.居住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)从事打渔农耕的朱特人先到达不列颠;接着是撒克逊人,他们来自德国北部,在埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国;六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部把自己名字给了英国人的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚,麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居.
Heptarchy:During the Anglo-Saxon’s time,Britain was divided into many kingdoms,among which there were seven principal kingdoms of Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East Anglia,Mercia and Northumbria.They were given the name for Heptarchy. 在盎格鲁-撒克逊时期,英国被划分为许多王国,其中有七个主要王国:肯特,埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯,威塞克斯,东盎格利亚,麦西亚和诺森伯利来.他们被合称为七王国.
The Anglo-Saxon tribes were constantly at war with one another,each trying to get the upper hand,so that the kingdoms were often broken up and often pieced together again. 盎格鲁-撒克逊部落之间不断交战,彼此都想占上风,因此王国总是分了合,合了又分
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. 盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国.
Although the Anglo-Saxons were ferocious people,they laid the foundations of the English state.Firstly,they divided the country into shires;Secondly,they devised the narrow-strip,three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century;Thirdly,they also established the manorial system.Finally,they created the Witan(council/meeting of wisemen)to advise the king,the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today. 虽然盎格鲁-撒克逊人是凶猛的民族,但他们为英国国家的形成打下了基础.首先他们把国家划分为郡;其次他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪;他们还建立了采邑制;最后他们还创立了议会(贤人会议),向国王提供建议,这是现存的枢密院的基础.
3.The Viking and Danish invasions     The Norwegian Vikings and the Danes attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century.The Danes gained control of the north and east of England—the Danelaw.从8世纪末起,挪威海盗和丹麦人就不断袭击英格兰各地方.丹麦人控制英格兰北部和东部丹麦法区.   After Alfred’s death,his successors reconquered the Danelaw.King Ethelred the Unready tried paying the invaders to stay away.But the Danes didn’t go away but invade again. 亚尔弗雷德死后,他的继任者们重新征服了丹麦地区."未准备好者"埃塞尔雷德国王进贡给丹麦人以免被侵略,但丹麦人又再度进犯.  After Ethelred’s death,Canute,the Danish leader was made English king in 1016.He proved to be a wise ruler.After his death in 1035,his sons Harold and Hardicanute reigned successively.After Hardicanute’s death the succession passed to the successor Edward the Confessor. 埃塞尔雷德死后,丹麦首领喀奴特在1016年成为了英国国王.他是位英明的通知者.1035年他死后,他的儿子哈罗德和哈迪喀奴特先后统治王国.哈迪喀奴特死后,王位传给了"忏悔者"爱德华.
4.King Alfred and his contributions亚尔弗雷德国王和他所做出的贡献(849-899)   ①Alfred was the king of Wessex and defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879亚尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王.他打败了丹麦人,并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议;②He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy”他因为建立了强大舰队,而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世;③He reorganized the Saxon army,making it more efficient他改组了撒克逊军队,使之更为高效;④He is said to have taught himself Latin and translated a Latin book into English据说他自学了拉丁语并将一本拉丁语书译成英语⑤He encouraged learning in others,established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great”他鼓励向他人求知并修建学校,并且制订法律制度.
5.The Norman Conquest and its consequences诺曼征服及其影响(1066)   It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, William defeated Harold in the battle of Hastings.On Christmas Day William was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey. 据说爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉,但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王.公元1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯战役中威廉打败了哈罗德军队.圣诞节这天在威斯敏斯特大教堂,威廉被加冕为英格兰国王.      The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the   Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government.The Norman Conquest ended the English history of being invaded, the feudal system was completely established in England . Relations with the Continent were opened, and civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced.The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.  公元1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件.征服者威廉没收了几乎所有土地,将其分发给他的诺曼追随者.他用强大的诺曼政府取代软弱的撒克逊人统治.诺曼征服结束了被侵略的英国历史,英格兰完全确立了封建制度:扩展了与欧洲大陆的关系;文明和商业都得到发展;引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑.教会与罗马的联系更为密切,教会法庭从世俗法庭中单独分离出来.
Chapter 3   The Shaping of the Nation  英国的形成（公元1066-1381）
1.England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror在威廉统治下的英国封建制度     ①Under William,the feudal system in England was completely established在威廉统治下,英国的封建制度得到完全确立;②In this system,the King owned all the land personally根据此制度,国王拥有全国所有土地;③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land’s produce威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族,条件是贵族保证服役和交租;④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country,so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king贵族的这些地产分散于各处,这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王;⑤The barons parceled out his land to the lesser nobles,knights and freemen,also in return for goods and services贵族又把土地分配给小贵族,骑士和自由民,同样要他们交租和服役;⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs在封建等级底层的是农奴;⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance,not only to their immediate lord,but also to the king英国封建制独有的特色就是,无论是土地承租人还是二佃户,都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主,而且要效忠于国王.   
William replaced the Witan with the Grand Council.  威廉用大议会取代了贤人会议.  In order to have a reliable record of all his lands,his tenants and their possessions,William sent his clerks to compile a property record known as Domesday Book,which was completed in 1086. 为了使所有的土地,佃户和他们的财产记录可靠,威廉派官员编了一本财产清册,称为«末日审判书»
2.Contents and the significance of the Great Charter«大宪章»的内容及意义   Also known as the Magna Carta,Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons.«大宪章»是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的. It consists of 63 clauses. Its important provisions are as follows«大宪章»共有63条:①no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council没有大议会批准不得征税;②no freeman should be arrested,imprisoned,or deprived of his property except by the law of the land除依照法律,不得随意逮捕,拘禁自由民,不依照土地法不得剥夺其财产;③the Church should possess all its rights,together with freedom of elections教会拥有的权利和选举自由不受侵犯;④London and other towns should retain their ancient rights and privileges伦敦和其它城市应保留其古老的权利和特权;⑤there should be the same weight and measures throughout the country全国应统一度量衡.  Although the Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties,it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons,a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king.The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king,keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.尽管长期普遍认为«大宪章»是英国自由的基础,但它只是国王与贵族之间的封建与法律关系,保证教会的自由,限制国王的权力.«大宪章»的精神是限制王权,置王权于封建法律的约束下.
3.The origins of the English Parliament英国议会的起源    In 1258,the barons,under Simon de Montfort,forced Henry Ⅲ and his son Prince Edward to swear to accept the Provisions of Oxford.Later,Henry refused to confirm to the Provisions of Oxford,thus a civil war brake out between the king’s supporters and the baronial army led by Simon de Montfort.  1258年,贵族们在西蒙•德•孟福尔的领导下迫使国王和他的儿子爱德华王子宣誓接受"牛津协定".亨利拒绝批准牛津协定,国王的支持者和西蒙•德•孟福尔领导的封建主组成的军队之间爆发了内战.
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265,Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council,together with two knights from each country and two citizens from each town.,a meeting which has seen as the earliest parliament.It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Common as a parliament. 大议会是当今英国议会的原型.1265年,西门德孟福尔召开大议会,各县有两名骑士,各镇有两名市民参加,此次会议被看作是最早的议会.大议会发展到后来演变成议会.分为上议院和下议院
Its main role was to offer advice,not to make decisions.There were still no elections,no parties,and the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. 其作用是咨询而非决定,也没有选举和政党.议会的最重要的部分是上议院
4.The Hundred Years' War with France and its consequences百年战争及其结果    When Edward III claimed the French Crown but the French refused to recognize,the war broke out. 爱德华三世宣布要继承法国王位,但法国人民拒绝承认,于是引发了百年战争.  The Hundred Years’ War with France refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453.The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy of Aquitaine,while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.   百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争.战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素.领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国阿奎丹大片的公爵领地有密切关系,随着法国国王势力日增,他们日益渴望占领这片从他们领土内被分割出去的土地.经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关.弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口地,但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王.其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人,以及不断觉醒的民族意识.   When the war ended,Calais was the only part of France that still in the hands of English.  战争结束的时候只有加来港还被英军占领.  Consequences:The expulsion of the English from France is regarded as a blessing for both countries:had they remained,the superior size and wealth of France would certainly have hindered the development of a separate English national identity,while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.  战争的结果:把英国人赶出了法国对两个国家都是幸事:若英国人继续留在法国,那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍英国作为一个独立民族的发展;而法国如被外国势力占领了大量的领土,其民族特性的发展也要长期受阻.
  HenryⅤrenewed the war in 1415 and won a crushing victory at Argencourt.He was recognized to the French throne in 1420.After his death,the French,encouraged by Joan of Arc,finally drove the English out of France.  亨利五世在1415年重新发动战争.在阿根科特战役中大胜.他在1420年成为法国国王.亨利死后,法国人民在圣女贞德的鼓舞下,最终把英军驱逐出法国.
5.Consequences of the Black Death黑死病的影响  The Black Death was the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century.It swept through England in the summer of 1348 without warning and,most importantly,without any cure.It reduced England’s population from four million to two million(about one half and one third of the population was killed) by the end of the 14th century.  黑死病是现代名称,指老鼠身上的跳蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的传染性疾病.14世纪传播了到欧洲.1348年夏天横扫全英国,事先毫无预兆,而更重要的是无药可救.英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万.    The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching.As a result of the plague,much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour.Landowners tended to change from arable to sheep-farming,which required less labour.The surviving peasants had better bargainning power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour.So some landlords,unable or unwilling to pay higher wages,tried to force peasants back into serfdom.In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.  黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远.鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏.地主只得把耕地改成对人力需求较少的牧场.幸存的农民处于有利的可以讨价还价的地位,他们从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪.
Chapter 4   Transition to the Modern Age  向现代英国的过渡(1455-1688)
1.The nature and consequences of the Wars of the Roses玫瑰战争     The name Wars of the Roses was, in fact, coined by a 19th century novelist Sir Walter Scott.This was a war between the rich and ambitious nobles. 玫瑰战争这个词是19世纪的大作家瓦尔特•斯考特创造的.这是一场富人和野心勃勃的贵族之间的战争.   It was referred to these battles between the great House of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white,from 1455 to 1485.Although the Wars of the Roses were waged intermittently for thirty years,ordinary people were little affected.Feudalism received its death blow.No less than 80 nobles of royal blood were killed in the wars.The great medieval nobility was much weakened and discredited.The king’s power became supreme. 它是指从1455年到1485年,以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争.虽然玫瑰战争断断续续进行了30年,但普通民众所受影响甚微.封建制度却遭受了致命打击,不少于80位皇室血统的贵族阵亡.中世纪的贵族势力被大大削弱,名誉扫地.至此,国王的权利变得至高无上.
After the wars,king Henry Tudor replaced king Richard Ⅲ to rule England.  玫瑰战争后,亨利•都铎取代了理查德三世统治英国.
2.Henry Ⅷ and the English Reformation亨利八世和英国的宗教改革    Henry Ⅷ was above all responsible for the religious reform of the Church亨利八世是宗教改革的最重要的责任者  .There were 3 main causes:①a desire for change and reform in the Church had been growing for many years and now,encouraged by the success of Martin Luther,many people believed its time had come期望教会改革已有多年,现在又受马丁•路德成功的鼓舞,许多人认为时机已到;②the privilege and wealth of the clergy were also resented人们痛恨教职人员的特权和财富;③Henry needs money亨利需要钱.         The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon because she could not produce a male heir for him.But the Pope refused to annul his marriage.Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings,and past two laws as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England.  改革以争取离婚而开始,以脱离教皇而告终.亨利八世想与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚因为她没有生下男嗣,但是教皇拒绝了.亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系,成立独立的英格兰教会.1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系.他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院,因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚.1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性.1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号.  The English Reformation had 3 important effects:They stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism.  改革的三大影响:亨利的改革强调了君主权力,自然加强了亨利的地位;议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作,自然其重要性也有所加强;他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会,并希望从天主教转向新教.
3.Elizabeth I and Parliament伊莉莎白一世和国会  Generally speaking,Elizabeth was able to work with Parliament,but the relationship with Parliament was often turbulent.Parliament wished its customary right of free speech confirmed in writing;and it wanted to be allowed to start discussion of important questions at will,not by invitation.Elizabeth would not permit either thing.Elizabeth treated 5 questions as personal and private.These were her religion,her marriage,her foreign policy,the succession to the throne and her finance. 伊丽莎白能与议会合作,但与议会的关系经常动荡不安.议会希望以书面形式确认议会按惯例已享有的言论自由,也希望能随意地讨论重大问题,而无需经过女王邀请.伊丽莎白一件也未批准.伊丽莎白把五个问题看作是个人问题,那就是她的宗教,婚姻,对外政策,王位的继承和财产.
4.Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策    Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control.Her religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.  伊丽莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协.她中断了玛丽女王与罗马建立的关系,恢复了她父亲建立的独立的英格兰教会也就是说她保持天主教的教条及做法,但不受教皇控制.她的宗教和解既不被极端的清教徒所接受,也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受.   For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain.In 1588,the English navy defeated the Spanish Armada.The destruction of the Spanish Armada showed England’ superiority as a naval power.   近30年的时间,伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀,从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突.通过她从未具体化的联姻,伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系,因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险.1588年,英国海军击败了西班牙舰队.西班牙无敌舰队的灭亡表明了英国作为海上强国的优势.
5.Distinctive features of the English Renaissance英国文艺复兴的特点        In England,the Renaissance began in 1485 and it had 5 characteristics英国的文艺复兴起始与1485年.五个特点:①English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics英国文化的复兴不全是直接接受古典文化的影响,而更多的是受当时有文艺复兴思想的欧洲人的影响;②England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe作为岛国,英国的社会和政治历史进程在很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家;③Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them.由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现,英国本土文学相当有生气,善于融合外来影响而未被同化;④English Renaissance’s literature is primarily artistic,rather than philosophical and scholarly.⑤The Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的,其次才是哲学的和学术的⑤文艺复兴与英国宗教改革同时发生.
6.The Civil Wars and their consequences内战及其影响     Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the Parliament developed into the civil war.The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.  由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权,他与议会的对峙发展成了内战战争开始于1642年8月22日,结束于1651年.最后查尔斯被处死
   In 1642,the first English Civil War began between King Charles and Parliament.The king's men were called Cavaliers,and the supporters of Parliament were called Roundheads because of their short haircuts.     1642年,查尔斯一世和议会之间的第一次内战开始.国王的支持者被称为"骑士派";支持议会者因为留短发被称为"圆颅派".
 The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution,because the king's opponents were mainly Puritans,and his supporters chiefly Episcopalian and Catholic.It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King,but also a conflict between the economic interests of the urban middle classes and the traditional economic interests of the Crown.The economic interests of the urban middle classes coincided with their religious ( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.   英国内战又称为清教徒革命.因为国王的敌人主要是清教徒,而支持者主要是天主教派成员和天主教徒.这是议会和国王间的冲突,也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突.城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教(清教)思想吻合.相应地,皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰结合在一起.英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度,而且动摇了欧洲封建统治的基础.英国内战通常被看作是现代世界史的开端.
7.The Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell       From 1649 to 1658  England was called a Commonwealth.It was ruled first by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector(in 1653,he became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England).从1649年到1658年,英国被称为共和国.由奥利弗•克伦威尔护国主统治(1653年他成为英格兰共和国的护国主).       One of Cromwell's first acts was to crush without mercy a rebellion in Ireland,killing all the inhabitants of the towns of Drogheda and Wexford.Another was the suppression of the Levellers, proposed a radical political programme not at all to his taste.克伦威尔的举措之一就是毫不留情地镇压爱尔兰的起义,杀死了德洛莎达和威克斯福两镇的所有居民.另一举措是镇压平均派,原因是他们提出的激进政治方案不合克伦威尔的口味.             Other aspects of this period were: establishment of colonies and colonial trade,religious toleration for all,and greater understanding of the economy.这时期其他方面的特点是:建立殖民地和进行殖民贸易;容忍所有宗教;对经济更加了解.
8.The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution复辟和光荣革命     The Parliament elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as King Charles II.The Restoration, as it was called,was relatively smooth,and although not a perfect king,Charles II was able to capitalize on government goodwill towards him.Britain prospered under Charles.    1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的儿子从长期流亡地法国回国作国王,称查尔斯二世,从而解决了危机.所谓的王朝复辟相对顺利.尽管查尔斯二世不是完美国王,但他却能利用政府对他的善意.在查尔斯的统治下英国繁荣发展.
  In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic.He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies.But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago.So the English politicians rejected James II,and appealed to a Protestant king William of Orange,James's Dutch nephew and the husband of Mary,James's daughter,to invade and take the English throne.William landed at Torbay in 1688 and marched upon London.In England this takeover was relatively smooth,with no bloodshed,nor any execution of the king.This became known as the Glorious Revolution.   1685年查尔斯二世去世,由其弟詹姆斯二世继位.詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大,是个天主教徒.他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家.但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了.英国政客反对詹姆斯二世,他们呼吁信奉新教的国王奥兰治亲王威廉入侵英国夺取王位,威廉是詹姆斯的荷兰侄子,也是他的女婿.1688年11月15日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦.这一占领相当顺利,既未流血也未处死国王,所以就称为"光荣革命".
  William and Mary jointly accepted the Bill of Rights which,excluding any Roman Catholic from the succession,confirmed the principle of parliamentary supremacy and guaranteed free speech within both the House of Lords and the House of Commons.威廉和玛丽共同接受了《权利法案》,此法案剥夺了罗马天主教徒的继承王位的权利,确立了议会权利至高无上的原则,保证了上下两院中的自由言论权.
Chapter 5    Rise and Fall of the British Empire 大英帝国的兴衰(1688-1990)
1.Whigs and Tories辉格党人和托利党人      These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).Both were known by nicknames:Whigs was a derogatory name for cattle drivers,Tories an Irish word meaning thugs.Loosely speaking,the Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists.The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings.The Whigs were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party,which still bears the nickname today.They controlled English Parliament in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命.都是以绰号命名:辉格是对牧牛人的贬称,而托利在爱尔兰语里是歹徒的意思.泛泛而言,辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权,支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人们.托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权,不愿去除国王的人.辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人结盟组成自由党.托利党是保守党的前身,至今保守党还保留托利党这个绰号.他们于18世纪末19世纪初统领英国议会.   Whigs stood for①a reduction in Crown patronage(the power to appoint people to important positions and offices);②sympathy towards Nonconformists(Methodists and other Protestant sects who had broken away from the Church of England);③care for the interests of merchants and bankers.   辉格党人主张:①削弱王权(比如任命政府重要官员的权利);②同情非国教教徒(即已脱离国教的卫理公会及其他新教派别);③保护商人和银行家的利益.     Tories were traditionalists who wanted to preserve the powers of the monarchy and the Church of England.They disliked the Nonconformists and considered them a threat to Church of England’s influence on the people;they wanted strict maintenance of law and order and were afraid of mob riot;they might agree to some humanitarian reforms,but were certainly against Parliamentary reforms.  托利党人是一批持传统观点的人.他们主张保留君主和英格兰教会的权力.他们不喜欢非国教教徒,认为他们是对英格兰教会的一大威胁.他们想严格地维护法律和秩序,害怕下层阶级造反.他们并不总赞同改革,特别是坚决反对议会改革,他们只同意某些人道主义改革.
2. Agricultural Changes in the late 18th Century Traditional farming involved the open field village,a system that dated back to the 5th century.There were of course drawbacks:①it wasted land because of fallow fields and land for paths;②it was wasteful of labour and time;livestock farming was difficult and diseases spread quickly on commons.Winter food was rarely enough,so animals were usually killed in autumn and their meat was salted;③the open field system was a barrier to experiments.  传统的农作方式主要是开放式农田的农村,这种制度可追溯到5世纪.当然它也有缺陷:休耕地和道路用地浪费了土地;浪费了劳动力和时间;牧业很难发展,公地上蔓延疾病,冬天粮食不够吃,因此秋天时常常把动物杀掉,腌肉;开放式田地制是搞试验的障碍.  During the late 18th and early 19th centuries,the "open-field" system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:①Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;②more vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;③enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns,which rapidly became hopelessly overcrowded.In Ireland and the Scottish Highlands land enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World④a new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships. 18世纪末,19世纪初,随着《圈地法》的颁布,传统的“开放田地”制结束.圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪.农业圈地运动的利弊共存:由于大农场兼并了小农场,农场成为越来越大的生产单位;人们消费的蔬菜,牛奶及奶制品越来越多,饮食种类愈加丰富;圈地对佃农而言是场灾难,他们被赶出土地,被迫到城镇找工作,因此城镇很快过于拥挤.在爱尔兰和苏格兰高低,圈地运动导致了大规模的移民,尤其是移民至新大陆;农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立.
3.The English Industrial Revolution and its impact on the development of Britain工业革命（1780-1830）  选择题
The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.  工业革命指的是18世纪末,19世纪初英国工业的机械化,以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化.  Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:英国是第一个工业化的国家,原因如下:①Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade.英国地理位置优越,适合参与欧洲和世界贸易;②Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies.International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industrialization.英国社会安定,17世纪后对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增.国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富,他们和那些由于新农业耕作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金.③The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力,使得社会中强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响.④It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports,or from rivers,which could distribute their products.英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流,货物运输便利.⑤Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.英国许多河流不仅用于交通,还提供水力及蒸汽动力.英国也有可用的矿产资源.⑥British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.英国工程师是训练有素的手工艺人.⑦The inventors were respected.They solved practical problems.发明家受人尊重,他们解决了实际难题.⑧Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” helped.很可能得益于政府的“不干涉主义”及“新教工作道德”.⑨England,Scotland,and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.1707年后,英格兰,苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟,1807年后爱尔兰加入.因此,全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍.⑩The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食,为工厂提供了劳动力,为工业提供了所需的一些原材料.            Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution工业革命中一些重大创新:①John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733~约翰凯的飞梭;②James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766~詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机;③Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769~理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机;④Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779~塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机;⑤Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784~爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机;⑥The first steam engine was devised by Thomas Newcomer and the Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the design in 1765.托马斯•纽卡默设计了第一台蒸汽机,苏格兰发明家詹姆斯•瓦特修改并改良了它.1765年发明.       Consequences of the industrial Revolution:工业革命的结果①Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”;no other country was yet ready to compete with her in industrial production.英国成为了“世界工场”,在工业生产上,没有任何一个其他国家能与之竞争②Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation’s wealth.城镇迅速兴起,成为国家财富的源泉③Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it.The working men worked and lived in appalling conditions.机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活.工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活④The industrial revolution created the industrial working class,the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.工业革命产生了工人阶级,即无产阶级.后来形成了工会制度.
4.The Chartist Movement and its consequences宪章运动（1836-1848）          There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law.1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满.          In 1836 a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association.They draw up a charter of political demands(a People’s Charter) in 1838,with the intention of presenting it to Parliament.It had six points:the vote for all adult males;voting by secret ballot;equal electoral districts;abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament;payment of members of Parliament;annual Parliaments,with a General Election every June.1836年一群技术工人和小店主组成伦敦工人协会,于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章即«人民宪章»,想把它呈送给议会.宪章内容:所有成年男子都有选举权;进行无记名投票;平等选区;议员选举废除财产资格要求;议员应有报酬;议会年选制,每年六月进行大选.
  The Chartists could be roughly divided into two groups:the Moral Force Chartists and the Physical Force Chartists.The former headed by William Lovett wanted to realize their aims by peaceful means(“politics of persuasion”).The latter headed by Feargus O’Connor,wanted to achieve their purpose by violence.  宪章派成员可大致地分为两派:道义派和暴力派.道义派由威廉•洛维特领导,试图通过和平手段实现目标(“政治说服”).暴力派由斐尔格斯•奥廉诺尔领导,试图用暴力达到目的.  Results of the Chartist Movement宪章运动的结果:Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership,and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism.The working class still immature,without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory.The Chartist movement was, however,the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems.The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.” 由于领导层的软弱和分裂,由于缺少与工会的协调,宪章运动失败了.当时的工人阶级还未成熟,没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导.但是,宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人阶级运动,引起了对许多严重问题的关注.在1858至1918年间,六项要求逐渐达到,尽管第六项从未成为现实.列宁说宪章运动是“第一个广泛的、真正群众参与的,有政治组织形式的无产阶级革命运动.”
5.The building of the British Empire大英帝国的建立     English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583.In the eraly 18th century,settlements were made in North America,while commercial companies were chartered to trade with other lands, notably the British East India Company in India. Encouraged by Britain’s control of the seas, the discoveries of men like Captain Cook,and especially by the rising tide of emigration, British colonialists stepped up their expansion in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries.   英国殖民扩张开始于1583年纽芬兰的殖民化.17世纪初,在北美建了定居点.同时商业公司被授权与他国进行贸易.著名的有设在印度的英国东印度公司.英国对海上的控制类似库克上校这样的人的航海发现,特别是海外移民浪潮的掀起,都鼓励了英国殖民者在18世纪末,19世纪初加快了殖民扩张.  By 1900, Britain had built up a big empire, “on which the sun never set”. It consisted of a vast number of protectorates, Crown colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions. It included 25% of the world’s population and area. 1900年英国已建立了“日不落”的大英帝国,包括受保护国,英国,殖民地,势力范围和自治领地,共占世界人口与面积的25%.
  In the late 18th century Britain acquired vast,underpopulated territories:Canada,Australia,and New Zealand.After the Seven Years’ War between Britain and France,Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris.French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774.Then the Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada where the British had settled, and Lower Canada populated by the French.The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion.18世纪末,英国获取了广阔而人口稀少的领土:加拿大,澳大利亚,新西兰.英法两国进行的七年战争(1756-1763)结束后,1763年签订的《巴黎条约》把加拿大割让给了英国.1774年的《魁北克法》保证了法国的权益.之后,1791年《加拿大》把加拿大分为上加拿大和下加拿大,前者是英国人的定居地,后者是法国人的居住点.1867年《英国北美法案》确定加拿大为自治领地.  The English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing were united in one dominion―the independent Commonwealth of Australia.1788年英国人开始把囚犯流放到澳大利亚.1816年开始可以自由定居,1840年后囚犯不再流放到澳大利亚.1851年至1892年的淘金热使更多的人拥到澳洲.1901年,六个自治领统一为一个自治领-澳大利亚独立联邦.  New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841, achieved self-government in 1857, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and was made completely independent in 1931.   1841年新西兰成为独立殖民地,1857年实现自治,1907年成为英皇属下的自治领,1931年完全独立.
 The establishment of the British East India Company in 1600 was a case of economic penetration.The company took control of areas and as a result the British government became directly involved in Indian affairs.By 1819 the British conquest of India was almost complete.In 1857 the native troops of the Bengal army of the East India Company mutinied.After the mutiny,the control of India passed to the British Crown in 1858,and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.   1600年英国东印度公司的建立是经济渗透的实例.该公司控制了印度的大片地区,因此英国政府介入了印度事务.到1819年英国对印度的征服已基本完成.1857年属于东印度公司的孟加拉军队的当地士兵发动兵变.兵变后,印度在1858年改由英国君主统治.1877年维多利亚女王正式成为印度女皇.  At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were confined to forts and slave trading posts on the West Coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans.By 1900 more than 9/10 had been colonized.Britain led the way in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West, Britain was also involved in the North East in Egypt and the Sudan.   19世纪初英国的占领地局限于西海岸的堡垒和奴隶交易点.但19世纪欧洲人逐渐发现非洲内陆并使之殖民化,到1900年,超过十分之九的非洲被殖民化.在这场瓜分竞赛中英国占了较大的优势.除了不断扩张的南部和西部殖民地后,英国又凯觎东北的埃及和苏丹.     In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britain and China. Since then, Britain gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of unequal treaties upon China.   1840年中英发动了鸦片战争.从那时起,英国逐渐侵略了中国的许多沿海城市,并签定了许多不平等条约.
6.Britain and the First World War英国和第一次世界大战    The World War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power blocs: “the Central power”. Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the “Allies”, Britain, France and Russia. Britain was afraid that Germany would overrun Europe and gain control of parts of the British Empire.This,together with an earlier treaty which promised to guarantee Belgium's neutrality,brought Britain into World War I on August 4,1914.During the war Britain lost over a million people,most of them under the age of 25.Apart from the loss of manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations.But tensions were also created which were to give rise to the Second World War 20 years later.  第一次世界大战是从1914年至1918年,战争主要在两大欧洲集团间进行:“同盟国”,包括德国和奥匈帝国;“协约国”,包括英国,法国和俄罗斯.英国害怕德国横行欧洲并控制英帝国的地区,加上原先保证保护比利时中立的承诺,于1914年8月4日参战.一战中英国死亡一百多万人,大多是25岁以下的年轻人.除了劳动力损失,还有巨大的经济与社会瓦解.由于战争和解建立了国际联盟.但也导致了国家间的紧张局面,最终导致20年后的第二次世界大战爆发.
7.Britain and the Second World War英国与第二次世界大战     As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe,Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on September 3,1939.  当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时,首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策已站不住脚,只得于1939年9月3日对德宣战.  Chamberlain was not the man to lead his country in such a crisis;Winston Churchill,his First Lord of the Admiralty,took over as Prime Minister in 1940.Although Britain's island status protected it from invasion,the civilians were involved in the war in a way that had never happened before.German bombing raids destroyed many cities,of which Coventry was the worst hit.The Blitz radically changed the face of London for the first time since the Great Fire nearly 3 centuries earlier.Sir Winston Churchill received massive popular support as a war leader and led his country to final victory in 1945.   张伯伦不是这样严重的危机中合适的领导人,因此他的首席海军大臣温斯顿•丘吉尔于1940年接任首相.尽管英国的岛国地位使其免遭侵略,但英国平民以前所未有的方式参战.的国的轰炸摧毁了许多城市,考文垂市受创最重.自从三百年前的伦敦大火以来,德国闪电战首次令伦敦面目全非.温斯顿•丘吉尔爵士作为战时领导人受到群众普遍欢迎,他领导英国在1945年获胜.           Britain suffered far fewer military casualties in the Second World War than in the First.Some 250,000 were killed,with a further 110,000 dead from Empire and Commonwealth forces.Britain lost one-quarter of her national wealth and entered upon a period of economic and financial difficulties.   战中英国的军事伤亡比一战时小得多.死亡约25万人.另外,英帝国及英联邦联军也阵亡11万人.英国损失了四分之一的国家财富,也进入了经济和财政的困难时期.
8.Postwar Britain战后的英国      At the general election of 1945 Winston Churchill was heavily defeated.The electorate(voters) returned a Labour government.1945年的大选中,温斯顿•丘吉尔惨败.选民选举了工党政府.      The foundations of the welfare state was laid during these years, providing free medical care for everyone and financial help for the old,the sick and the unemployed.The Bank of England,coal mines, railways and steelworks were nationalized.But these were hard years and rationing was as severe as it had been during the war.战后数年奠定了福利国家的基础,这种福利制度向每个人提供免费医疗,为老人,病人和失业者提供财政援助.英格兰银行,煤矿,铁路和钢铁厂被国有化.但这些年仍是艰苦岁月,定量配给仍一如战争时期那样严厉.   One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was that it hastened the end of Britain’s empire.二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解.    The post-war years were not peaceful.In 1950 Britain joined the war of aggression against North Korea.When Gamal Abdel Nasser,the Egyptian President,nationalized the Suze Canal in 1956,British and French forces invaded Egypt.This was widely condemned at home and abroad and brought about the fall of Anthony Eden.In 1957 Britain's first hydrogen bomb was tested.战后的年月并不和平.1950年英国参加侵略北朝鲜的战争.1956年当埃及总统加马尔•阿比迪•纳赛尔把苏伊士运河收为国有时,英法军队入侵埃及.这一行动遭到国内外的广泛谴责,并导致安东尼•艾登首相的下台.1957年英国试验了首枚氢弹. The government held a Festival Exhibition in the newly built Royal Festive Hall on London's South Bank.It was designed to commemorate the Great Exhibition 100 years earlier and "to demonstrate to the World the recovery of the United Kingdom from the effects of War in the moral,cultural,spiritual and material fields".政府在伦敦南岸新建的皇家纪念厅举办节日展览.展览的目的是纪念100年前的博览会并"向世界表明在道德,文化,精神和物质领域,联合王国已从战争的影响中恢复过来.   By the mid-1950s things were definitely looking up.Herold Macmillan,the Conservative prime minister,declared in 1957 that people had "never had it so good".By the 1960s Britain was one of the world's leading industrial as well as nuclear powers.到20世纪50年代中叶,一切欣欣向荣.哈罗德•麦克米伦,保守党首相,在1957年宣布人民的生活"从未如此好过".到60年代英国成为世界工业强国及核大国之一.   The 1960s were the Swinging Sixties,the permissive age. 20世纪60年代是摇摆的60年代,又称宽容的年代. In January 1973,Britain finally became a full member of the European Economic Community. 1973年1月,英国终于成为够周经济共同体的正式成员国.    An oil embargo and a miners' strike provoked a State of Emergency in the winter of 1973 and brought down Edward Heath's Conservative Government in 1974.The 1970s saw the growth of nationalism in Wales and Scotland. 1973年冬季的石油禁运和矿工罢工使国家进入紧急状态,并使爱德华•希思的保守党政府于1974年下台.70年代威尔士和苏格兰的民族主义情绪滋长.       In 1982 the Falkland Island War broke out. 1982年福克兰群岛战争爆发.
9.Thatcherism撒切尔主义    The election of 1979 Margaret Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Britain.1979年的选举使玛格丽特•撒切尔成为英国首位女首相.  Mrs Thatcher firmly believed in self-reliance and what has come to be known as privatization.Her policies are popularly referred to as Thatcherism.It included the return to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions the strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and order. To some extent her program was successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in the British economy.撒切尔夫人极力主张自力更生以及私有化.她的政策被广泛称为“撒切尔主义”.其内容包括国有工业私有化,采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀;削弱工会;加强市场因素在经济中的作用;强调法律和秩序.在一定程度上讲,她的计划是成功的.领导英国经济度过了一段最繁华的时期之一.  
Chapter 7  Government and Administration英国政府机构
1.The British Constitution英国宪法        The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy:the head of state is a king or a queen.In practice,the Sovereign reigns,but doesn’t rule:the United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty’s Government.The System of parliamentary government is not based on a written constitution.There is no written constitution in the United Kingdom,that is,the British constitution is not set out in any single document.It is made up of statute law, common law and conventions. The Judiciary determines common law and interprets statutes.联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王.实际上君主统而不治.联合王国以君的名义,由国王或女王陛下政府治理.英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法.英国宪法不由单一文件构成,而由成文法,习惯法和惯例组成.司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法.
2.Constitutional Monarchy in Britain英国君主立宪制    The monarchy is the oldest institution of government,going back to at least the 9th century.The continuity of the monarchy has been broken only once when,between 1649 to 1660,a republic was established.君主政体是最古老的政府机构,至少可以追溯到9世纪.除了1649年至1660年间建立过一个共和国而中断过一次外,很少改变.    Although the monarchy has survived,it seems that it has no real power today.The monarch’s power are limited by law and Parliament.Constitutional monarchy began after the Glorious Revolution in 1688.今天尽管君主政体仍然存在,但似乎已无实权.它的权力受限于法律和议会.君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命后开始.    The Queen’s husband is the Duke of Edinburgh,and her eldest son is the Prince of Wales.When a daughter succeeds to the throne,she becomes Queen Regnant,and has the same powers as a king.女王的的丈夫是爱丁堡公爵,长子是威尔士亲王,女儿继位则成为在位女王,与国王享有同等权力.Elizabeth II,her title in the United Kingdom is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith".伊莉莎白二世,她的全称是"上帝神佑,大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王,英联邦元首,国教保护者伊莉莎白二世". 
The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Crown and the “supreme governor” of the established Church of England.女王是国家的象征.从法律上讲,她是行政首脑,立法机构的组成部分,司法首脑,全国武装部队总司令,英国国教"至高无上的领袖".
  The Civil List is an annual grant approved by Parliament.The grant is made to the British Sovereign and members of the royal family.It is used to cover the expense involved in carrying out their public duties.
In Britain,the Queen’s private expenditure as Sovereign is met from the Privy Purse,which is financed mainly from the revenue of the Duchy of Lancaster.  在英国,女王的君主开销由王室内库支付,王室内库主要来自兰开斯特郡的王室领地收入.
3.The British Parliament and its functions英国的议院和它的作用  The United Kingdom is a unitary,not a federal,state.Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.A Parliament has a maximum duration of five years.英国是中央集权国家,而不是联邦制国家.议会由君主,上议院和下议院组成.一届议会的最长任期是5年.   The main functions of Parliament are:议会的主要作用是:①to pass laws通过立法;②to provide,by voting for taxation,the means of carrying on the work of government投票批准征税,为政府工作提供资金;③to examine government Policy and administrations,including proposal for expenditure检查政府政策和行政管理,包括拨款提议;④to debate the major issues of the day当天的议题辩论.  The House of Parliament were rebuilt between 1835 and 1857 after having been destroyed by fire and were designed by Sir Charles Barry.The public are admitted to the Strangers’ Galleries in the House of Lords and the House of Commons.议会大厦被大火烧毁后,于1835年重建,是查尔斯•巴里设计的.公众可以到上下议院的公众旁听席旁听会议辩论.    
The House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal.The Lords Spiritual are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York and 24 senior bishops of the Church of England.The main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into the process of lawmaking.In other words,the non-elected House is to act as a chamber of revision, complementing but not rivaling the elect House.上议院由神职贵族议员和世俗贵族议员组成.神职贵族议员是指坎特伯雷大主教和约克大主教以及英国教会的24 位高级主教.它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法.换而言之,非选举的上议院是修正议院,对由选举产生的下议院立案进行补充而并非反对.       
The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod,usually known as “Black Rod”,is responsible for security, accommodation and services in the House of Lords’ part of the Palace of Westminster.“黑杖侍卫”负责威斯敏斯特宫中上议院的安全,膳宿和服务.   The House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs).It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority for law-making resides.下议院由成人普选产生,由651名议员组成.下议院拥有最终立法权.     Britain is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals.英国被划分为651个选区,每个选区选一名下议院议员.大选必须五年举行一次,但经常不到五年就进行一次选举.    
British citizens and citizens of other Commonwealth countries,together with citizens of the Irish-Republic,may stand for election as Mps provided they are aged 21 or over and are not disqualified.Acandidate must deposit ₤500,which is returned if he or she receives 5% or more of the vote cast.英国公民和其他英联邦国家公民以及爱尔兰共和国公民,都可以竞选议员,条件是年满21岁以上和没有被取消资格.候选人必须交纳500英镑保证金,若得到投票总数的5%以上的选票则可以退还.  Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two major parties. These two parties are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Since 1945, either the Conservative Party or the Labour Party has held power. The party which wins sufficient seats at a General Election to command a majority of supporters in the House of Commons usually forms the Government. The leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minister by the Sovereign.The party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the official Opposition, with its own leader and “shadow cabinet ”.The aims of the Opposition are to contribute to the formulation of policy and legislation by constructive criticism,to oppose government proposals it considers objectionable,to seek amendments to government Bills,and to put forward its own policies in order to improve its chances of winning the next general election.英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党—-保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是对政策和立法的制定提出建设性批评,反对它认为不对的提议,修正政府议案,提出自己的方针政策以增加瑕疵大选时本党获胜的机会.
4.The British Government英国政府     Her Majesty’s Government is the body of ministers responsible for the conduct of national affairs.The Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen.He is also,by tradition,First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service.By modern convention,the Prime Minister always sits in the House of Commons.His offical residence is No.10 Downing Street in London.The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of general business of the Government. Cabinet members hold meetings under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to decide Government policy on major issues.  女王陛下政府是由负责处理全国事务的大臣组成的机构.女王任命首相.根据传统,首相也是首席财政大臣和文职部大臣,根据现代惯例,首相必须是下议院议员.他的官邸是伦敦的唐宁街十号.首相主持内阁,负责分配大臣们的职能,在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务.内阁在首相的主持下,每周开会几小时,以决定在重大问题上政府的政策.  Ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for all Cabinet decisions; individual Ministers are responsible to Parliament for the work of their department.  女王根据首相推荐任命大臣.内阁的所有决定由大臣全体负责,各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责.The government departments are staffed by members of the Civil Service,whose duty is to assist in carrying out the administration of laws passed by Parliament.Civil Servants do not belong to any political party Changes of Government do not involve changes in departmental staff are recruited mainly by competitive examination.. There are about 541800 civil servants in Britain now.政府各部公务员来自行政事物部,其职责是帮助贯彻议会通过的法律.公务员部门不属于任何政党,政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更.公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用.英国现约有541800名公务员.                
Chapter 9   Social Affairs英国社会
1.Religion in British society宗教     Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom with out interference from the community or the State. He may change his religion at will may manifest his faith in teaching, worship and observance. Except that the Lord Chancellor may be a Roman Catholic, public offices are open without distinction to members of all churches or none.在英国,人人都有信仰宗教的权利,社会和政府不得干涉.他可以随意改变宗教信仰,可以在教职,礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰.除了大法官不可以是罗马天主教徒外,公共职务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开.      There are two established church in Britain: in England the church of England and Scotland the(Presbyterian) Church of Scotland.英国有两大国教,在英格兰是英格兰国教,苏格兰是苏格兰教会(长老教).   Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that Church and as “Defender of the Faith”.The Church is also linked with the State through the House of Loads. The church of England is not free to change its form of worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer without the consent of Parliament.英格兰国教与君主有独特的关系.因为君主作为“国教的捍卫者”必须是此教会的一员,他在登基时必须承诺维持国教.国教还通过上议院与政府联系.没有议会同意,英格兰教会不可随意改变“国教祈祷书”中规定的礼拜仪式.     The Church of England has two provinces:Canterbury and York.  英格兰有两大教省:坎特伯雷教省和约克教省.        The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian, that is, government by ministers and elders, all of whom are ordained to office. The Monarch is normally represented at General Assembly by the Lord High Commissioner.英格兰教的管理时长老制,也就是由教士和长老治理.他们被授予圣职,王室高级代表通常代表君主光临会议.    The Church in Wales became part of the Anglican Church at the Reformation.The Bible was translated into Welsh by Bishop Morgan in 1588.威尔世教会在宗教改革时期成为圣公会的一部分.1588年摩根主教把《圣经》译为威尔士语.
  The Free Churches are some of the Protestant churchs in Britain.Their members have also been known as dissenters or nonconformists.  英国的自由教会是新教的一些派别.它们的成员被称为不顺从国教者.
  The Methodist Church,the largest of the Free Churches,originated in the 18th century following the evangelical revival under John Wesley.卫理公会是自由教会中最大的一支,起源于18世纪的约翰•卫斯理领导下的福音派复兴.   The Baptists first achieved an organized form in Britain in the 17th century.Today most Baptist churches belong to the Baptist Union of Great Britain.17世纪,浸礼会首先在英国形成组织.今天大多数浸礼会属于大不列颠浸礼会联盟.   The United Reformed Church was formed in 1972 following the merger of the congregational Church in England and Wales with the Presbyterian Church of England.This was the first union of two different churches in Britain since the Reformation in the 16th century.  联合改革会于1972年由英格兰和威尔士的公理会与英格兰长老会合并而成.这是16世纪的宗教改革以来,英国两种不同教会的首次联合.   The formal structure of the Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales,which ceased to exist after the Reformation,was restored in 1850. 英格兰和威尔士的罗马天主教会的正式组织在宗教改革后曾一度消亡,但于1850年恢复.
2.Festival and Public Holidays in Britain英国的节假日   The Christian festival of the year are Christmas, Easter, and Whit Sunday.  一年当中的基督教节日有圣诞节,复活节,圣灵降临节    Christmas Day,December 25th,celebrates the birth of Christ,and is the greatest of Christian festivals.Two important things,apart from Christmas Day’s significance,help to set this festival apart from all others:the custom of giving gifts and the habit of spending it with the family.  12月25日圣诞节,是庆祝耶酥诞生的最大的基督教节日.除了其重大宗教意义外,还有两件重大事情使之区别于其他节日:赠送礼物的风俗和家人团聚的习惯.    Easter is the chief Christian festival,which celebrates the Resurrection of Christ,on the first Sunday after the first full moon that coincides with,or comes after,the spring equinox.(taken as 21 March)复活节是基督教的主要节日,庆祝基督复活.在第一次月圆后的第一个星期日,刚好在春分时或春分后.    Whit Sunday is a major festival in the Christian church that falls on the seventh Sunday after Easter.圣灵降临节是基督教的主要节日,在复活节后的第七个星期日.
  New Year’s Day is part of Scottish “Hogmanay” festival,which is more important than Christmas to Scots.新年是苏格兰“除夕”节的一部分,对苏格兰人而言,除夕比圣诞节更重要.   The only other national festival is Guy Fawkes Day.The origin of this festival lies in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.另外一个唯一的全国性的节日是“盖伊•福克斯日”.这个节日起源于1605年的火药阴谋.     The birthday of the British Monarch is a National Day in Britain,for there is no fixed day which is a National Day in Britain. Now national celebrations are held on the second Thursday of June every year.在英国,君主的生日是国庆,因为英国没有固定的国庆日.                                                 现在全国性庆祝会定在每年六月的第二个星期四.Official public holidays are also called “bank holidays”.The term goes back to the Bank Holidays act of 1871.官方公假也称为“银行假日”. “ 银行假日”这个词可追溯到1871年的《法定假日法》.       December 26th is called Boxing Day,because it was formerly the custom to give “Christmas boxes”,or gift of money,to servants and tradesmen on this day.12月26日被称为节礼日,因为从前在这一天人们给佣人和小贩圣诞礼盒或红包.   
Chapter 10  Cultural Affairs
1.The Education system in Britain英国的教育          In Britain,education is compulsory for all between the ages of 5 an 16 except in Northern Ireland,the bulk of expenditure on education comes from public funds.在英国,5岁到16岁之间的所有孩子享受义务教育,大部分教育费用来自政府资金.   In the past children were allocated to different secondary schools on the basis of selection tests taken at the age of 11(known as eleven-plus)In the 1960s and 1970s this system was gradually replaced by comprehensive schools which take pupil of all abilities.过去,孩子们在11岁时要参加小学毕业考试,以便把他们分配到不同的中学.20世纪60年代到70年代,这一制度逐渐被综合学校所取代,后者招收各种能力水平的学生.     About 90% of the state secondary school population in Great Britain attend comprehensive schools.在大不列颠,约90%的公立中学学生上的是综合学校.  Tertiary colleges offer a range of full-time and part-time vocational courses for students over 16,as well as academic courses.职业专科学校给16岁以上学生提供文化课,以及一系列全时或非全时的职业课程.
  Many of Britain’s public schools are long-established and have gained a reputation for their high academic standards,as well as their exclusiveness and snobbery.The boys’ schools include such well-known schools as Eton,Harrow,Westminster and Winchester.Among leading girls’ schools are Roedean and Cheltenham Ladies’ College.Most of the members of the British Establishment(the top influential sectors of British society)were educated at a public school.英国的许多公学历史悠久,并因为他们很高的教学质量而名声卓著,同时也得了个排他性和势利眼的名声.著名的男校有伊顿,哈罗,威斯敏斯特和温彻斯特公学.著名的女校有罗迪安和切尔滕纳姆女子学院.英国权势集团(英国社会的高层阶级)的大多数成员都曾就读于这种公学.
2.The college system and tutorial system   There are some 90 universities in the United Kingdom including the Open University.在英联合王国包括开放大学在内约有90所大学.  The universities of Oxford and Cambridge(popularly known as Oxbridge) date from the 12th an 13th centuries,and the Scottish universities of St Andrew, Glasgow,Aberdeen and Edinburgh from the 14th and 15th centuries.All the other universities in Britain were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries.牛津和剑桥大学(通常被合称为Oxbridge)可追溯至12世纪和13世纪,而苏格兰的圣安德鲁大学,格拉斯哥大学,阿伯丁大学和爱丁堡大学可追溯到14世纪和15世纪.英国所有其他大学都成立于19世纪和20世纪.  First degree courses are mainly full time and usually last 3 years in England,Wales and Northern Ireland.在英格兰,威尔士,北爱尔兰,第一学位的课程主要是全日制的,通常学制3年. The open University is a non-residential university based in the new town of Milton Keynes,Buckinghamshire.It is so named because it is “open” to all to become students.The university was founded in 1969 and began its first courses in 1970.The University offers degree and other courses for adult students of all ages in Britain and the other member countries of the European Union.It uses a combination of specially produced printed texts,correspondence tuition,television and radio broadcasts and audio/video cassettes.For some courses,there are residential schools.开放大学是非住宿大学,以白金汉郡的新城弥尔顿•凯恩斯为基地.之所以叫开放大学是因为她对所有要上学的人“开放”.该大学与1969年成立,1770年开设第一门课程.此大学为英国其他欧盟成员国的各年龄段的所有成年学生提供学位课程和其他课程.此大学结合使用特别印制的印刷课本,函授,电视和无线电广播以及录音带,录象带等教学手段.某些课程还可住校学习.
3.Quality papers and popular papers严肃报和通俗报      Quality papers are directed at readers who want full information on a wide range of public matters.There are 5 quality dailies(Financial Times,the Daily Telegraph,The Guardian,The Independent,and The Times).严肃报纸面向那些想广泛了解公共事务,获取充分信息的读者.有5份严肃报«金融时报»,«每日电报»«卫报»«独立报»和«泰晤士报».    Popular newspapers appeal to people wanting news of more entertaining character,presented more concisely.There are 3 popular dailies(Daily Mirror,Daily Star and The Sun)通俗报纸能吸引那些想获取更有娱乐性和简明新闻的人们.有3份通俗日报«每日镜报»«每日星报»和«太阳报».
Quality papers are normally broadsheet(large-sheet) in format and mid-market and popular papers tabloid(small-sheet).在版式上,严肃报纸通常是大幅版面,而中间市场报和通俗报纸是小幅版面.                   
4.The BBC and its programs        BBC is short for British Broadcasting Corporation.BBC Network Radio serves an audience of 30 million a week in Britain,broadcasting around 38,000 hours of programs each year on its 5 networks. BBC是英国广播公司的简称.BBC的广播网络每周给英国的3,000万听众提供服务,每年在其5个广播网络播放38,000个小时的节目.      Apart from a break during the Second World War,the BBC has been providing regular television broadcasts since 1936. 自从1936年以来,BBC一直提供电视节目,除了二战期间有过中断.  The BBC World Service broadcasts international news world wide,using English and 38 other languages.  BBC国际广播电台用英语和38种其他语言向全世界广播国际新闻.
5.Sports in Britain英国的运动  Football(colloquially called “soccer”) is the most popular sport in England as well as in European,has its traditional home in England where it was developed in the 19th century.在英格兰和欧洲,足球(俗称“soccer”)是最受欢迎的运动,其传统老家在英格兰,出现与19世纪.    Cricket,the most typically English of sports,has been in existence since the 16th century.板球是英国人最典型的体育活动,自16世纪以来就有了.     Although tennis has been played for centuries,the modern game originated in England in the late 19th century.The main tournament is the annual Wimbledon fortnight.虽然网球已打了好几个世纪,但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰.主要比赛是一年一度的温布尔登两周赛.   The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been played since the 17th century and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there:The Honorable Company of Edinburgh Golfers.高尔夫球的故乡是苏格兰,自从17世纪以来那儿就很盛行这项运动.全世界最古老的高尔夫俱乐部爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司自然也在那儿.
Snooker is thought to have been invented by Sir Neville Chamberlain in India in 1875.人们认为桌球是1875年内维尔•张伯伦在印度首创的.
6.Major forms of art in Britain英国艺术主要形式      Museums博物馆:the British Museums        Music音乐:the Beatles“甲克虫”乐队 Royal Albert Hall and Proms皇家阿尔伯特厅      Drama戏剧:Royal Shakespeare Company(RSC)皇家莎士比亚剧场 and the National Theatre(NT)国家剧院剧团.     London has over 100 theatres,and half of them are to be found in the West End.伦敦有100多个剧院,一半位于西区.    Opera歌剧:the Royal Opera皇家歌剧团 and the English National Opera英国国家歌剧团.      Ballet and dance芭蕾和舞蹈:An estimated 6 million people take part in dance,making it one of Britain’s leading participatory activities.估计约有600万人参加跳舞,这使舞蹈成为英国人的主要参与活动之一.   
   Chapter 14     Population.Race and Ethnic groups
1.Characteristics of the American population美国人口的特点        The United States of the America is the third most populous county in the world after China and India.美国是世界人口第三大国,仅次于中国和印度.       Immigration accounts for a major source of population growth.Almost 20 million people or 7.8% of the total population were immigrants in 1992.移民是人口增长的主要来源.在1992年,近乎2,000万人,也就是美国国家总人口中的7.8%的人口,是来自海外的移民.        The United States has a more or less open-door policy to immigrants from independence until 1960s.Ellis Island of New York was an important immigration reception spot in the 1890s and at the turn of the century. Between 80% and 90% of immigration to the United States now is from Asian and Hispanic countries.从美国独立到20世纪60年代,美国的移民政策基本上是开放的.19世纪末20世纪初,纽约的埃利斯岛是一个重要的移民入境接待点.如今美国移民的80%到90%主要来源于亚洲和拉丁美洲的国家.     Arizona,Nevada,and Florida have been the fastest growing states in population for the last 20 years.在过去的二十年里,亚利桑那,内华达和佛罗里达是人口增长最快的州.       Changes in age structure during the 1980s reflect past trends in child bearing:the low birth rate in the two decades ending in 1945,the higher birth rate during the "baby boom"(1946-1964) and the lower birth rate afterwards.20世纪80年代人口年龄结构的变化反映了在这之前生育的趋势:1925年至1945年出生率低,1946年至1964年是生育高峰期,出生率比较高,之后出生率比较低.   The first immigrants in the American history came from England and the Netherlands.美国历史上的第一批移民来自英国和荷兰.    The first of these immigration waves began in the mid 1810s and reached the highest point in 1845.The second wave covered the period between 1860 and 1890. The largest of the three immigration wave in American was from 1890 to 1914.第一次移民浪潮始于1805年左右,移民人数在19世纪30年代至40年代期间稳步增加,1845年达到高峰.第二次移民浪潮贯穿于1860年到1890年的三十年.第三次移民浪潮,也是最大的一次,是从1890年到1914年.          WASP--White Anglo-Saxon Protestants盎格鲁-撒克逊新教徒的白人
Mobility is one of the characteristics of the American people.One in five American moves to a new home every year seeking new job opportunities,a better climate or some other goals.流动性是美国人的特点之一.有五分之一的美国人每年至少要搬一次家.  A large number of blank people move out of the south to other areas during the period between 1920-1960.大批黑人离开南方涌向外地发生在1920-1960年间.
There are four great population movements in the history of the United States.美国历史上有四次大规模的人口流动:
The First 1865~1880 east coast→west
The Second 1980~1920 rural areas→cities
The Third 1920~1960 the south/black people→other areas
The fourth 1960~now Northeast/central North→the West/the South
2.Black people and the Civil Rights Movement黑人和民权运动     The largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the United States is the blacks who number about 12.1% of the population.The first blacks were brought to North America as slaves in 1619.  美国人口最多的少数民族是黑人,大约占总人口的12.1%,第一批黑人作为奴隶于1619年运抵北美.    For a long period of time they were concentrated in the agricultural South.Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Roots are two novels giving a vivid description of the miserable life of the black slaves.在很长一段时间内,他们集中在以农业为主的南部,在种植园里种植棉花和烟草.«汤姆叔叔的小屋»和«根»这两部小说生动地描述了黑人奴隶的悲惨生活.
The slave system was formally ended by Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865.But even after the abolition of slavery,discrimination was practiced against black Americans.1863年林肯的«解放奴隶宣言»和1865年的«宪法»第十三条修正案正式结束了奴隶制.然而即使在废除了奴隶制之后,仍然存在对黑人的歧视.    This led to a strong civil rights movement in the 1960s.The Civil Rights Act of 1964 added protections for the right to vote,to use public facilities and to enjoy the same education as white people.It also contained provisions guaranteeing equal employment opportunities.The Voting Rights Acts of 1965 was meant to guarantee the blacks and others the right to vote.这些导致了60年代的民权运动.1964年通过的«民权法案»加强维护黑人选举权,使用公共设施以及和白人享受同等教育的权利.此法案还包括保证黑人享有同等就业机会的条款.1965年的«选举权法案»旨在保护黑人和其他人种的选举权.  The current situation of black Americans presents a mixed picture. 美国黑人的现状呈现出一种复杂的局面.
 Chapter 15  American History  美国历史(1600-1900)
1.The discovery of the New World发现新大陆         The "first American" were the Indians.The Indians lived on the land by hunting, gathering, fishing and farming.“最早的美国人”是印地安人.在这块土地上,印第安人以狩猎,采集野果,捕鱼和农业为生.      
In the late 15th century,Christopher Columbus,an Italian navigator,reached some small islands in the now West Indies.He thought he had reached Asia and didn’t know he had discovered a New Continent.Another navigator,Amerigo Vespucci,proved that the land was not India,but a new continent.Therefore,the land was named America after him.15世纪时期,意大利海员克里斯托夫•哥伦布来到现在的西印度洋的一些小岛上，他认为自己已经到了印度,而并不知道他已经发现了一个新大陆.另一个航海家阿美利哥•韦斯普西证实了这块土地不是印度,而是一块新大陆.因此,这块土地以他的名字命名为美洲.
2.Causes of the colonization of the New World新大陆殖民化的原因      
  Opportunity was the magic word that drew people to America. It offered people a chance to live a better life than they could hope for in the Old World.是机会这一富有魔力的字眼吸引人们来到美洲.它给了人们一个过更好生活的机会,在旧大陆是无望得到好生活的.     
 Many settlers came to America to search for religious freedom.They left their own countries because they were the victims of religious persecution.许多人到英国殖民地来是为了寻求宗教自由.他们之所以离开自己的国家,是因为他们是宗教迫害的被迫害者.
3.The original 13 colonies最初的十三个殖民地     The first English colony in the Americas was founded at Jamestown,Virginia,in 1607.Between 1607 and 1733 the British established 13 colonies along the east coast of North American.They were Virginia,Maine,New Hampshire,Massachusetts,Connecticut,New York,Rhode Island,Maryland,North Carolina,South Carolina,New Jersey,Pennsylvania and Georgia.美洲的第一块英国殖民地建立于1607弗吉尼亚的詹姆斯镇.1607到1733年间,英国在北美洲的东海岸建立了十三个殖民地.它们是弗吉尼亚,缅因,新罕布什尔,马萨诸塞,康涅狄格,纽约,罗得岛,马里兰,被卡罗来纳,南卡罗来纳,新泽西,宾夕法尼亚和佐治亚.       In 1620,201 of Pilgrims sailed to the New World in a ship called Mayflower.They arrived at Plymouth and built the Plymouth colony.在1620年,有201名英国清教徒乘坐一名为“五月花号”的船到达了新大陆.他们来到普利茅斯并建立了殖民地.   From 1630 to 1643,some 200 ships transported over 20,000 Englishmen to the Massachusetts Bay colony. 1630年至1643年,约有200艘船把2万英国人运抵马萨诸塞湾殖民地.    
  The colonists were building a new way of life in the New World.There were a number of features which would play a role in forming the American character.They were :representative from of government,rule of law,respect of individual rights,religious tolerance and a strong spirit of individual enterprise.殖民主义者在新大陆上建立起一种崭新的生活方式.其中许多特点在美国人性格形成中发挥了作用:建立代义制政府,法治,对个人权利的尊重,宗教上的宽容及强烈的个人进取心.
4.The American War of Independence and its consequences独立战争及其影响   In order to finance a large army stationed in America,the British government put into effect the Stamp Tax,collecting more money from the colonies to support the army,and requiring the colonies to provide the troops with fuel,light,bedding and other things.The people in the colonies opposed the unfair treatment and they declared“No taxation without representation”.That is,without their representatives taking part in decision-making,they had no obligation to pay taxes.为维持大批驻美军队,英政府实行印花税,从殖民地收取更多的钱来供应军队,并且要求殖民地为驻军提供燃料,灯油,寝具和其他物品.殖民地人民反对不公平待遇和所有这些政策.他们宣称“没有代表权就不交税”,没有他们的代表参加决策,他们就没有义务纳税.
  In 1773,when ships of tea reached Boston and the governor was determined to see that tea was legally protected in its distribution,several dozen Boston residents dressed as Indians boarded the ships at night and threw $75,000 worth of tea into the harbor.This came to be known as the “Boston Tea Party”.1773年,满载茶叶的船只到达波士顿,就要求总督坚决依法确保茶叶的销售.而几十个波士顿市民化装成印第安人在夜间登上了船,把价值75000美元的茶叶倾倒入海港.这就是著名的“波士顿倾茶事件”.
In September 1744,the First Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia which encouraged American to refuse to buy British goods.Colonial militia units were organized. 1744年9月,第一届大陆会议在费城召开,号召北美人民拒绝买英货.殖民地的民兵组织也建立起来.
The Battles of Lexington and Concord莱克星顿的枪声~On April 19,1775,about 1,000 British soldiers were sent from Boston to seize the military supplies of the militia(called the Minutemen) stored in Concord.Patriots were on the watch.When the British soldiers set out,a lantern in the tower of North Church flashed word to Paul Revere who rode off on horseback to arouse the villages.When the British soldiers arrived at Lexington they were met by several dozen armed militiamen.Suddenly a shot was fired and then others followed.Eight Americans fell dead and ten others were wounded.And the War of Independence had begun.1775年4月19日,1000多英国士兵从波士顿出发去夺取存放在康科德的民兵组织军需品.爱国者们早有提防.英国士兵一出发,北教堂塔楼上就有人迅速用灯笼把信息传递给保罗•里维尔,保罗马上骑马去向村民报警.英军一到莱克星顿就遇到几十个武装民兵.先是突然一声枪响,然后便枪声大作.8个美国人当场被打死,另外10个也负了伤.北美的独立战争爆发了.       The Second Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia.The delegates agreed to support the war.The Congress founded a Continental Army and Navy under the command of George Washington.It also appointed a committee to draft a formal declaration. Thomas Jefferson of Virginia drafted the Declaration of Independence.The Declaration is a clear explanation of the political theory behind the revolution and this theory came from the British philosopher John Locke.On July 4,1776,the Congress adopted the declaration.第二次大陆会议再次在费城召开.代表们同意支持战争,大会建立了大陆陆军和海军,由指挥官乔治•华盛顿任总司令.大会还指派一个委员会起草一份正式的宣言.弗吉尼亚的托马斯•杰文逊起草了«独立宣言»,它明确阐述了支撑这场革命的政治理论,这一理论来源于英国著名哲学家约翰•洛克.1776年7月4日,大会通过了这份宣言.         On the Christmas Day of 1776,the Americans defeated the British troops at Trenton,New Jersey.Not long afterwards ,the Americans troops defeated the British at Saratoga in Northern New York.This was a great turning point of the War of Independence,leading directly to an alliance between the U.S and France.1766年的圣诞节,美军在新泽西的特伦顿挫败英军,这之后不久,美军在萨拉托加击败英军,史称“萨拉托加大捷”这次胜利被认为是北美独立战争的转折点,并直接导致美法联军的建立.
 After Cornwallis surrendered his whole army,the British government asked for peace.In September,1783,the Treaty of Paris was signed.Britain recognized the independence of the United states.康沃利斯率全军投降后,英国政府要求和谈.1783年9月签订了«巴黎条约»,英正式承认美国独立.     The American War of Independence shows that,in a just war,a weak nation can defeat a strong one.It was a historic event:by smashing the fetters of British colonial rule,the American people gained independence,which gave capitalism a chance for freer development.It had great international influence.For instance,the colonies in Spanish America rose up one after another to overthrow Spanish colonial rule.美国独立战争表明,在正义的战争中,弱国是可以打败强国的.这是一次历史性的事件:美国人民打碎了英国殖民统治的枷锁获得了独立,这也使资本主义得到了更加自由的发展机会.同时它还有巨大的国际影响:比如,西属美洲殖民地也相继起来推翻西班牙的殖民统治.
5.Establishment of a federal form of government联邦政府的建立      A draft of a confederation was accepted by Congress in November 1777.The document was accepted by all the states by Match 1781.It was called the Articles of Confederation. 1777年11月大陆会议通过联邦草案.1781年3月美国各州批准了这一文件并称之为«联邦条例».  The Article of Confederation was unusual in many ways.First, it provided for no king.Second,While the Articles created a central government in the form of a Congress,the emphasis was still on state powers.Third,it was a written constitution.«联邦条例»在许多方面与众不同.①它不设国王②条例把国会作为中央政府,但仍然侧重各州的权力③«联邦条例»是一部成文的宪法.     There were serious weaknesses.It was difficult to carry on the business of the government without someone to do the executive’s job.Congress was too large a body to function as government.And Congress had no power to raise taxes.条例也有很多缺陷.由于没有人做执行方面的工作,所以政府的各种事务很难处理.国会是一个过于庞大的机构,因而起不到政府的作用,而且国会无权征税.     A conference was held in Philadelphia in May 1787 to consider what should be done to make the Articles of Confederation adequate.All of the states except Rhode Island were represented at the Constitutional Convention. 1787年5月在费城召开的会议上,讨论如何使«联邦条例»能够比较适当.除了罗得岛外,其他所有州代表都出席了这次制宪会议.   In the end,the differences were resolved by the "Great Compromise" of July 16,giving each state an equal vote in the Senate but making representation in the House reflect the size of each state’s population. 7月16日通过的"大妥协"方案最终解决了各方分歧:各州在参议院中享有相等席位,而众议院的席位则应按各州的人口分配.   Those who had argued successfully in the convention for a national system,and who took the lead in urging ratification,called themselves Federalists.And those who opposed the Constitution became known as the Anti-federalists.那些在制宪会议上主张全国一体化并获胜的代表们又领导了一场要求通过宪法的运动,他们自称为联邦派;而那些反对通过此宪法的人们则称为反联邦派.   The Federalist Papers are regarded as the best explanation of the constitution as well as one of the most important works on political theory. «联邦文集»被认为是对美国宪法最好的解释,也是美国最重要的政治理论著作之一.  Ten amendments were ratified in 1791 and became the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution-the Bill of Rights,which were introduced by James Madison.1791年通过了十条修正法案,成为宪法的前十条修正案――«人权法案».      George Washington was the first American president.On the 30th of April,he took the oath of office in New York which housed the government.The government moved to Philadelphia in 1790. 乔治•华盛顿是美国的第一任总统.4月30日,他在政府所在地纽约宣誓就职.1790年政府前往费城.
6.Consequences of territorial expansion and the Westward Movement领土扩张和西进运动         The United States grew from thirteen colonies along the Atlantic coast to a nation spanning across the continent to the Pacific coast.美国从大西洋沿岸的十三个殖民地发展成一个横跨大陆到太平洋沿岸的国家.   During the 13 years of Indian wars after the War of Independence,the Americans forced England to give up the Old Northwest and they forced Spain to open the Mississippi River.Their crossing of the Mississippi helped persuade Napoleon to sell the Louisiana Territory to the U.S.在独立战争后十三年的印第安战争中,美国人迫使英国放弃了旧西北地区,强迫西班牙开放密西西比河,促使拿破伦把路易斯安那地区卖给美国.        The purchase of Louisiana from Napoleon doubled America’s territory.从拿破仑那里购买的路易斯安那地区使美国的疆土增加了近一倍.    Their move southward,under the militant leadership of Andrew Jackson,forced Spain to cede Florida and the Gulf coast.The war with Mexico forced Mexico to agree to give California and New Mexico.在安德鲁•杰克逊的军事指挥下,美国向西挺进,迫使西班牙让出佛罗里达和墨西哥湾沿岸地区.美国和墨西哥的战争迫使墨西哥同意割让加利福尼亚和新墨西哥.       The expansionist movement produced a theory of "Manifest Destiny".扩张主义运动产生了一个理论"天定命运论".     The implications are three fold天定命运论有三重含义:①the inevitability of the founding of the United States of America美利坚合众国的成立是不可避免的;②the legitimacy of the expansion of American Territory美国领土扩张是合法的③the spread of American democracy being the task of American people who were chosen to do the Lord’s work传播美国民主是上帝挑选美国人去完成上帝交给的任务.
7.The American Civil War and its impact on the development of the U.S.美国独立战争和其对美国发展的影响    When Abraham Lincoln was elected president,the southern states broke away and formed a new nation,the Confederate States of America.However,Lincoln was determined to maintain the Union,so war broke out on April 12, 1861.亚伯拉罕•林肯当选总统后,南方诸州退出了联邦,成立了一个新的国家――美利坚联盟.林肯决心维护联邦的统一,于是1861年4月12日内战爆发了.    In the Civil war,Lincoln realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making the war a just war against slavery.So he issued the famous Emancipation Proclamation to set the black slaves free.美国内战期间,林肯意识到通过把这场战争变成反对奴隶制的正义战争,他就可以赢得国内外对联邦的支持.于是他发表了«解放宣言».     The Union army under the command of Ulysses S. Grant defeated the Confederate army at Gettysburg,Pennsylvania.This victory was the turning point of the Civil War.北方联军在尤利西斯•格兰特的指挥下,在宾夕法尼亚的葛底斯堡击败了南方联盟军,这次胜利是美国内战的转折点.         On November 19, 1863, Abraham Lincoln made a short speech on the occasion of dedicating the national cemetery at Gettysburg.He ended his speech with these memorable words:"That government of the people,by the people,for the people,shall not perish from the earth. 1863年11月9日,林肯在葛底斯堡阵亡将士公墓落成仪式上发表了简短的演说,他以另人难忘的语言结束了演说"民有,民治,民享的政府将不会从地球上消失"       Robert E. Lee could no longer hold Richmond.The war was over on April 9, 1865. 罗伯特•李再也守不住里士满了,这场战争在1865年4月9日结束了.       Five days later,on April 14, Lincoln was shot dead by John Wilkes Booth.The Thirteenth Amendment,which banned slavery,was added to the Constitution in December,1865.  5天以后即4月14日,林肯被约翰•威尔克斯•布思枪杀.1865年12月,禁止奴隶制的第十三条修正案写入了美国宪法.
8.Rapid growth of capitalism after the Civil War内战后迅速发展的资本主义            After the Civil War,the United States saw great development in industry,agriculture,science and technology,and population.内战之后,美国的工业,农业,科技迅速发展,人口迅速增加. There were many reasons原因是多方面的:①With the war over,the U.S. again achieved a stable political environment.As a result, both foreign and domestic capital became available for investment.由于战争结束,美国再次进入稳定的政治环境,引来国内外资本进行投资;②Black slaves were free,and waves of European and Asian immigrants poured into the U.S. So there was enough labour supply for the development of industries.黑奴自由了,大量的欧洲和亚洲的移民涌入美国.因而工业的发展有了足够的劳动力供应;③Science and invention played a very important role in accelerating America’s industrial development.科学和发明在加速美国工业的发展中起了非常重要的作用;④The federal government put high taxes on foreign imports.This encouraged Americans to buy American-made goods.联邦政府对外国的进口产品征收高额关税,从而鼓励美国人购买本国生产的商品;⑤The U.S. was rich in natural resources.美国自然资源丰富.       Thomas A. Edison became a hero, who patented over 1,000 inventions.托马斯•爱迪生成了英雄,他的发明专利有1000多项.   Monopoly by big business became a strong trend in the American economy.大企业的垄断成为美国经济的发展趋势.
Chapter 16   American History  美国历史 (1900-1945)
1.Economic growth in the early 20th century         In 1880,the U.S. ranked first in the world in the production of steel; in 1900,the U.S. produced 245 million tons of coal, ranking first in the world. 1880年美国钢产量世界第一,1900年煤产量世界第一.        Large corporation, urbanization and new technology were the three features in the growth of American economy at the beginning of the 20th century.大公司的出现,城市化及新技术的迅速发展是美国20世纪初经济增长出现的三大特点:①Beginning in 1889,there emerged a growth of industrial and financial mergers.从1889年开始,越来越多的工业和金融业合并~~United States Steel Corporation美国钢铁公司;Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company洛克菲勒的美孚石油公司;J. P. Morgan摩根②With the development of industry and the extension of railroad network,there was a mushroom growth of cities.This is what we call urbanization of America.随着工业的发展和铁路网的扩张,城市也迅速发展起来.这就是我们说的美国的城市化③There was a rapid development of new technology.新技术迅速发展~~Henry Ford began to mass-produce cars.亨利•福特开始大规模生产汽车. The Wright brothers flew a plane.This was the beginning of the appearance of the plane.莱特兄弟自制了一架飞机,这是飞机出现的开始. Glenn E.Curiss designed and flew a successful plane.格伦•E•库利斯设计了一架飞机并成功试飞.
2.Progressivism and some of the reform efforts进步运动及一些改革成果     At the turn of the 20th century,there appeared the progressive movement.It was a movement which demanded government regulation of the economy and social conditions,spread quickly with the support of large numbers of people across the country.The progressive movement was not an organized campaign with clearly defined goals.Rather,it was a number of diverse efforts at political,social and economic reforms. 20世纪初进步运动开始.它是要求政府规范经济和社会状况的运动,迅速在全国蔓延并得到广泛的支持.它不是一个有组织和有明确目标的运动,而是为改革政治,社会和经济所作的多种努力.
In the social area,the demands were improved living conditions,for the poor in the cities,the banning of child labour,work hour limit for women workers,and industrial accident insurance.在社会方面提出的要求是改善大城市贫民的生活条件,禁止使用童工,限制女工工作时间及工伤事故保险.     In the political area,there were demands for reforming the city and state governments,and ending corruption which was evident in the Gilded Age.在政治领域要求改革市政府和州政府,结束镀金时代的腐败.        In the economic area,there was an attempt to regulate big business to prevent price-fixing and control of the market.在经济领域也试图节制大企业,以防止人为定价和操纵市场.
  Presidents Theodore Roosevelt,Woodrow Wilson contributed to the government regulation of economic development.西奥多•罗斯福总统和伍德罗•威尔逊总统在政府调控经济方面做出了贡献. 
3.Role of the U.S. in W W І一战中的作用       On August 4,1914,President Wilson issued an offical statement proclaiming American neutrality.But it pursued a policy of pro-Ally partiality.Britain and France could buy arms and war materials from the U.S.,and get loans from American banks and financial institutions.  1914年8月4日,威尔逊总统发表正式声明,宣布美国保持中立.但它奉行支持同盟国的政策.英国和法国可以从美国购买武器和作战物资,可以从美国银行和金融机构获得贷款.     The U.S. government declared war on Germany on April 6,1917.  1917年4月美国向德国宣战.        At the Peace Conference(the Paris Conference),president Wilson put forward a program of Fourteen Points which was praised by many as liberal and progressive,he was actually trying to advance American interest.在巴黎和会上,威尔逊总统提出了被很多人称赞为自由和进步的十四点计划,但实际上他还是为了美国的利益.
4.Characteristics of the 1920s 1920年的特性         The 1920s in the U.S. has been described by many historians as a period of material success and spiritual frustration or confusion and purposelessness.There was further urbanization,new development of technology and mass production in the 1920s.许多历史学家都把美国的二十世纪二十年代描写成一个物质上成功,精神是迷惘或漫无目标的时期. 20年代城市化进一步发展,新技术和大规模生产也得到进一步发展.     When the war was over,there existed a highly aggressive and intolerant nationalism and a typical example of this intolerance was the Red Scare in 1919 and 1920.战争结束后存在一股有很大侵略性和偏执性的民族主义.这种偏执性的一个典型的例子就是1919到1920年的"红色恐惧".       The Red Scare happened in America where at that time a highly aggressive and intolerance nationalism existed. On November 7,1919 and January 2,1920,the Justice Department launched two waves of mass attests. Over 4000 suspected Communists and radicals were arrested and many were forced to leave the U.S.红色恐惧是发生在极大侵略性和偏执性的民族主义时期.1919年11月7日和1920年1月2日司法部进行了两次大逮捕行动,有4000多人被怀疑是共产主义者或激进派被逮捕,许多人被迫离开美国.      Another famous event was the death sentence of Sacco and Vanzetti.另一著名事件是萨柯和万泽蒂的死刑案.  The third example was the revival and growth of the Ku Klux Klan(KKK).The KKK terrorized and attacked not only blacks,but also progressives,labour union organizers,Communist or social party members.第三个例子是三K党的复活和发展.三K党进行恐怖活动,不仅攻击黑人,而且还迫害进步人士,工会组织者,共产党或社会主义党成员.
5.Effects of the Great Depression on American society大萧条的影响    The first blow to the stock market came on Oct.24,1929,called the black Thursday.1929年10月24日发生了第一次股票市场的重击,这一天被称为黑色星期四.   The stock market crash was the beginning of long economic depression in the late 1920S and 1930S.股票市场的崩溃是1929-1933年的经济大萧条的开端. The gross national product shrank.国民生产总值减少.  Unemployment increased.失业人数增加.  Banks went bankrupt.银行破产.   Young men and women rode the train to nowhere in particular.青年男女漫无目的地坐上火车.    Hungry and homeless people were seen looking for scraps of food in garbage cans,slept in parks,subways or abandoned buildings.饥饿和无家可归的的人们到垃圾箱里寻找剩饭,睡在公园,地铁或废弃的建筑物里.
6.Franklin Roosevelt and the New Dea富兰克林•罗斯福和新政         In 1932,in the depth of the depression,the American people chose Franklin D. Roosevelt as their next president who promised a "new deal" to get America out of the depression.He first tried to build up people’s confidence. 1932年在大萧条处于低谷的时候美国人民选举富兰克林•罗斯福为他们的下一任总统,他许诺实施"新政"使美国走出危机.他首先试图建立起人们的信心.        His New Deal included:①establishment and strengthening of government and control of banking,credit and currency systems,overcoming the financial crisis and restriction of certain extreme practices of financial capital.建立和加强政府对银行,信贷和货币系统的监管和控制,克服金融危机,限制某些金融资本的极端行为;②federal government management of relief and establishment of social security systems联邦政府管理救济,并建立社会保障系统;③stimulation of the recovery of industry and agriculture刺激工农业的恢复;④formulation and implementation of federal labour laws to raise the role of labour in the relations of production制定和实施联邦劳工法,以提高劳工在生产关系中的作用;⑤improvement of the situation of minorities and members of certain religious groups.改善少数民族和一些宗教团体的状况.      The aim of these measures was to "save American democracy".这些措施的目的在于"拯救美国民主".
The New Deal was put forward by American President Roosevelt who wanted to do something to deal with the Great Depression at that time. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up some efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to “save American democracy” and to overcome the most serious economic crisis of the capitalist system up to that time.
7.America in W W II二战中的美国       In the early 1930S,the American foreign policy was isolationism,to keep the U.S. out of the fighting that was going on in Europe and Asia.From 1935 to 1937,the U.S. Congress passed three neutrality acts which were all signed into law by President Roosevelt. 在30年代初期,美国奉行的是孤立主义的外交政策,即使美国远离欧洲和亚洲的战争.从1935到1937年美国国会通过了三个中立法案,均由罗斯福总统签署定为法律.     But with the spread of the war,especially after the fall of France,the U.S. gradually moved away from neutrality and tried to help Britain,which was alone in European fighting against Nazi Germany.The Lend-Lease program is a case in point.但是随着战火的蔓延,尤其是法国沦陷以后,美国逐渐偏离中立政策,尽力帮助在欧洲和纳粹德国孤军作战的英国.租界法案就是一个例子.     The bombing of Pearl Harbour changed the whole situation.American wartime objectives were the total destruction of the Axis powers and the establishment of a world order after unconditional victory in accord with American ideals and interests.轰炸珍珠港改变了整个局势.美国的战时目的是彻底摧毁轴心国,无条件胜利之后,按照美国人的理想和利益建立世界秩序.     The most important issue in Anglo-American diplomacy after Pearl Harbour was the formulation of a grand strategy.珍珠港事件后英美外交政策中重点是制定一个宏大的战略计划.The two countries worked out a strategy of Europe first,that is,concentration of resources to defeat Germany first.首先是这两国制定出欧洲第一的战略计划,即集中一切力量击败德国.The second issue was policy towards the Soviet Union.其次是这两国对苏政策问题.The third issue was the status of former colonies after the war.第三是战后原来的殖民地的地位问题.          During the WWII, the postponement of the opening of the Second Front was a reflection of the American’s desire not to give the Soviet Union the possibility of quick expansion.二战期间,美国延缓开辟第二战场就反映出美国不让苏联有迅速扩张的可能性.
 American diplomacy in WWII was largely diplomacy towards Britain and the Soviet Union.There were two guiding principles behind all diplomatic activities:1>to win the war;2>to establish t postwar political structure in accord with American interests and to prevent the Soviet Union from over-expansion.二战期间,美国的外交政策大体上是针对英国的前苏联的.所有外交政策的两个主导原则是:羸得战争,按美国利益建立战后政治格局并阻止苏联的过度扩张.
The leaders of the U.S. the Soviet Union and Britain met three times during the WWII.二战期间,英,美,苏三国领导人共会晤了三次.The first summit was held at Teheran in 1943.The Teheran Conference was decided that a large-scale attack on the south of France would be launched in May,1944,which was codenamed Overlord.第一次是1943年11月在德黑兰举行,会议决定进行代号为“霸王行动”的军事行动,向法国南部大规模进攻.The second conference was held in Yalta in 1945.The Yalta Conference approved a redivision of postwar sphere of influence and decided on the setting-up of the United Nations.第二次是1945年2月的雅尔塔会议,会议实际通过了站后三大国势力范围的重新划分并决定建立联合国组织.The third conference was held at Potsdam in 1945.The Potsdam Conference confirmed the temporary division of Europe agreed to at Yalta and showed there were differences among the three powers which later led to tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.第三次是1945年在柏林城外举行的波茨坦会议,主要确认了雅尔塔会议关于欧洲格局的暂时分配,会议也显出了三大国间的巨大分歧,这导致了后来美苏之间的紧张关系.    
Chapter 17 American History(III) in post-W.W.II Era(1945-1980S)
1.Origins of the Cold War冷战的起源      On Feb 22,1946,George Kennan,a high-ranking official in the American embassy to Moscow, wrote in the telegram that the U.S.policy should be vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies. Later the containment policy became the official policy towards the Soviet Union. 1946年2月22日,美国驻苏联大使乔治•凯南在他的电报中主张对苏联采取遏制政策.
2.The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan杜鲁门主义和马歇尔计划     The open declaration of the containment policy was made by President Truman on March 12,1949 in a speech to the joint session of congress. 1949年3月12日杜鲁门总统在国会联席会议上公开宣布了遏制政策.   The Truman Administration decided to provide aid for Greece and Turkey.In his speech to Congress Truman said,"it must be the policy of the U.S. to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." That is to say,the U.S. government would support any country which said it was fighting against Communism.This is the Truman Doctrine.杜鲁门政府决定向希腊和土耳其提供援助.在对国会的演讲中杜鲁门说:"美国的政策必须支持自由人民反对少数武装人员或外来压力的颠覆企图".也就是说,美国政府将会支持任何自称反对共产主义的国家,这就是杜鲁门主义.         In order to protect Western Europe from possible Soviet expansion,the U.S.decided to offer Western European countries economic aid. This later came to be called the Marshall plan because it was announced by Secretary of State George Marshall on June 5,1947.为了保护西欧不受苏联扩张影响,美国决定给予西欧国家经济支援,此举后来被称作"马歇尔计划",因为它是1947年6月5日由国务卿乔治•马歇尔提出的.
3.Effects of McCarthyism on American society麦卡锡主义及其对美国社会的影响           McCarthy was a Senator who started the fullscale anti-Communist hysteria in the U.S.He even accused Marshall and Eisenhower of helping the Russians in their drive for world domination.It frightened a large number of ordinary Americans and people began to feel that it would be safer to conform than to disagree with the majority.McCarthy in the end destroyed himself with his extreme accusations and activities.麦卡锡是共和党的参议员.他开始了在美国的反共狂潮.他甚至职责马歇尔和艾森豪威尔帮助苏联建立世界霸权.它吓坏了许多普通美国人,人们开始感到随大流比持不同意见更安全.麦卡锡最终以自己极端的指控和活动毁了他自己.
4.The postwar boom in the U.S.战后经济繁荣的美国         Since 1945 the U.S. had entered a twenty-five-year economic boom.The cornerstones were the automobile,housing, and defense industries.Crucial to the postwar economic boom was the baby boom,which was both a cause and an effect of prosperity.从1945年起美国开始进入了长达25年的经济繁荣时期.汽车,住房和国防工业是发展的基石.对战后经济发展最重要的是生育高峰,它既是繁荣的一个原因,也是繁荣的一个后果.     Between 1946 and 1961,more than 63.5 million babies were born in the U.S,making the baby-boom generation the largest by far in the American history.从1946年到1961年,是美国历史上的生育高峰期.
5.The U.S.and the Vietnam War美国和越南战争    The policy of containment of Communist led the U.S. into the war in Vietnam which turned out to be the longest war it fought(1950~1975).When the Korean War broke out,Truman decided to send military aid to Vietnam to support the French in their fight with the Vietnamh.This was the beginning of American involvement in Vietnam.After the Geneva Conference on Indochina in 1954 and French withdrawal from Indochina,the U.S. replaced France and became the main force in providing aid for the South Vietnam puppet government in its suppression of revolutionary forces.In response to the suppression,the Communists in the south organized the National Liberation Front in 1960 to strike back,which was supported by North Vietnam.Thus civil war broke out in the south. 对共产党的遏制政策使美国卷入了越南战争~~美国打的时间最长的一场战争(1950~1975).朝鲜战争爆发后,杜鲁门决定向越南运送军事援助支持法国与越盟作战.这是美国卷入越战的开始.1954年解决印度支那问题的日内瓦会议开过之后,法国从印度支那撤军,随后美国取代法国成为向南越傀儡政府提供援助的主要力量,并帮助其镇压革命力量.为了反抗镇压,南部的共产主义者在北越的支持下于1960年成立了民族解放阵线进行反击,于是内战在南部爆发了.      President Johnson decided to Americanize the war on a large scale,began to face criticism from both inside and outside the government.Richard Nixon,who was elected on a platform of ending the Vietnam War, changed the strategy into "Vietnamization" of the war building up South Vietnam troops to replace American fighting force.决定使战争大规模美国化的约翰逊总统开始受到来自政府内外的批评.里查德•尼克松以结束越战作为自己的竞选纲领,把战略改为战争越南化即逐步建立南越军队以取代美国的作战部队.    Finally,the U.S. and North Vietnam signed a cease-fire agreement on January 27,1973.On April 29,1975,the National Liberation Front forces took Saigon and soon the two parts of Vietnam became a unified country.最后,美国和北越于1973年1月29日签署停战协议.1975年4月29日,民族解放战线的部队占领了西贡,不久越南的两个部分变成了一个统一的国家.      The Vietnam War had a great impact on American society:①The U.S. was weakened as a result of the long war.About sixty thousand young Americans died in the war and about two million American young people had fought at some time in South Vietnam.由于长期的战争,美国的实力受到削弱.大约有6万美国青年死于战争,约有200万美国青年曾经在南越战斗过.②American society had never been so divided since the Civil War.自从内战以后美国社会从来没有这样分裂过.③There was serious disagreement within the ruling circle.统治阶层内部也有严重分歧④The image of the U.S.,especially the image of the American armed forces,was discredited.美国的形象,尤其是美国武装部队的形象受到损害.
6.U.S.-China relations(1949-1972)美中关系     Since Truman sent the 7th Fleet to the Taiwan Straits and declared that the status of Taiwan was undecided,the Taiwan problem had been a key problem in the U.S.-China relations.In Dec.1954,the U.S. government signed a Mutual Defence Treaty with Chiang Kaishek,committing itself to the defense of Taiwan and Penghu.自从杜鲁门派第七舰队进驻台湾海峡并宣称台湾的地位未定以来,台湾问题就成了美中关系的关键问题.1954年12月,美国政府与蒋介石集团在台湾签定了互助防御条约,承诺保护台湾列岛和澎湖列岛.   But in the late 60s an early 70s,with deep involvement in the Vietnam War and the expansion of influence of the Soviet Union,the U.S. began to look for a way to improve relations with China so as to get China’s help for its withdrawal from south Vietnam and to work with China against Soviet expansion.In Feb. 1972,President Nixon visited China and met Chairman Mao Zedong and the two countries issued the Shanghai Communique.The visit ended 23 years of hostility and led to the establishment of diplomatic relations in Jan.1979. 但是在60年代末70年代初由于美国深陷越战中,以及苏联在世界上影响的扩大,美国开始寻求一种方式来改善与中国的关系以便从越撤军时得到中国的帮助并与中国合作对抗苏联的扩张.1972年2月,尼克松总统访华,会见了毛泽东主席,两个国家发表了«上海联合公报».此次访问结束了23年的敌对关系,促成了1979年1月中美外交关系的建立.
7.Counterculture in the U.S.反文化运动     In the wake of the Free Speech Movement and the anti-Vietnam War Movement appeared a phenomenon that observers called the counterculture.It was a movement of revolt against the moral values,the aesthetic standards,the personal behavior and the social relations of conventional society.Millions of college youths experimented with drugs and rock music became the chief vehicle to attack on the status quo.在自由演说运动和反越战运动后,出现了一种现象,观察家称之为反文化运动.反文化是一种反叛运动,反对传统社会的道德价值,审美标准,个人行为准则和社会关系.数以百万计的青年大学生尝试毒品.摇滚乐成为反文化攻击当时现状的主要工具.      Beatles--甲克虫乐队
8.The New Right and their Program新右派     From the mid-70s onwards,the U.S. suffered from "stagflation",that is,the occurrence of stagnation and inflation at the same time.Not only were prices rising,economic growth was slowing.Besides,as a result of the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal,American prestige became much lower abroad.从70年代中期起,美国开始遭受经济滞胀,即经济停滞同时伴随通货膨胀.不但物价飞涨,经济增长也缓慢下来.除此之外由于越南战争和水门丑闻的影响,美国在海外的声望也降低了.      All this brought about in the late 1970s and early 1989s a rise in New Right conservation.The New Right consists of two groups of people:the firm believers of Protestant religious teachings who were more concerned with social and moral issues,and the intellectuals who were more concerned with political and foreign policy issues.The New Right demanded equal tim in school for the teaching of man created by God as opposed to the teaching of evolution,opposed abortion and "affirmative action",that is,preferential treatment for minorities and women in education and employment,demanded tax cuts and cuts in social security spending and the rebuilding of American military strength. 所有这些促使了70年代末80年代初新右派保守主义的崛起.新右派由两个团体组成:一个是坚定的新教教义的信仰者,他们比较关心社会和道德问题;另一个是比较关心政治和外交政策问题的知识分子.新右派要求学校用同样长的时间传播进化论和与之相对的上帝造人,反对堕胎,也反对"肯定行动"即对少数民族和妇女在教育和就业方面的优惠待遇,要求减税,削减社会保险方面的开销,重建美国军事实力.
Chapter 18   the Economy 美国经济
1.Factors that contribute to the fast growth of the economy美国经济快速增长的因素         ①The geographical location of the U.S. provides very good conditions for the country to grow and become strong.美国的地理位置给美国的发展壮大提供了非常好的条件;②the U.S. has been blessed by being a land rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil,together with a moderate climate.上天赐给美国的土地拥有丰富的矿产资源,肥沃的土壤和适宜的气候;③American has been fortunate in having enough people to provide the labour necessary for a constantly expanding economy.幸运的是美国有足够的人口为不断扩大的经济提供必要的劳动力;④The quality of available labour.The U.S. has a skillful and willing labor force.The American labor force is not only hard-working,but also willing to experiment,to change and to learn new technologies.劳动力的质量,美国拥有技术水平高和积极肯干的劳动力,他们不但工作努力,而且愿意去试验,改革和学习新的技术.
2.Characteristics of the U.S. economy美国经济的特点      The U.S. has a free-market economy with a dominant private sector.The privately owned and operated businesses, including farms,produce about 85% of the total output of goods and services.In the U.S. private ownership accounts for a larger share of the economy than in any other developed country.美国的经济制度是以私营为主的自由市场经济.私人拥有和经营的企业生产的商品和提供的服务占全国总量的85%.美国私有成分在经济中所占的比例比任何其他发达国家都大得多.   However,the government has always been an important element in the American economy.Traditionally,leaders of the U.S. government have been reluctant to become involved in the private sector,except for transportation.Government involvement in the economy increased during the Great Depression.In the postwar years government involvement was again emphasized when the U.S. adopted the Keynesian theory.In the early 1980s,the traditional Keynesian approach was replaced by new monetarist policies.然而政府仍是美国经济中的重要组成部分.传统上除了交通业,美国政府的领导人不愿意干涉私营企业.在大萧条时期政府对经济的干涉大为增加.二战后一段时间,美国采用凯恩斯理论管理经济,再次强调政府干预.80年代初期,传统的凯恩斯主义政策被新的货币主义政策所取代.     The American economy is characterized by a high degree of monopoly.Many of the nation’s basic industries are represented by only a few major corporations.In recent years,many corporations have chosen to become conglomerates.美国经济的特点是高度垄断.国家的多数基础工业被少数几家公司控制.近年来,许多大公司又组成大型联合企业.
3.The importance of foreign trade对外贸易的重要性   The U.S. supplies a larger share of the imports of all other countries than does any other nation in the world.However,the U.S. share of world trade has declined in recent years.Currently U.S. exports are about 15% of the world’s total.The U.S. imports about 13% of all world imports.It is heavily dependent on foreign sources for a number of essential primary products.美国产品在所有进口产品中所占的份额比世界上其他任何一个国家都要大.然而美国在世界贸易中所占的份额近年来有所下降.当前美国的出口额占世界总出口额的15%.当前美国的进口额约占世界所有进口额的13%.美国严重依赖从外国进口重要的初级产品.       Canada is the largest single source of goods imported by the U.S.,accounting for nearly 30% of the total.Outside of North America,Europe is the largest source of imports with about 30%.加拿大是美国进口产品的最大来源地,将近占美国进口总额的30%.在北美洲以外,欧洲是最大的进口来源,约占美国进口总量的30%.
4.Problems facing the U.S. economy美国经济面临的问题             The economic system of the U.S. is principally privately owned. Considerable freedom exists within the economic system for individuals to take risk,experiment and make profits.For years,it has not been able to solve the problem of poverty in the country.Today many of the American people still live under the poverty line.The estimated number of people living under the poverty line in 1995 was 35.7 million which made up about 14% of the total population.美国的经济制度是以私有制为主.在这种经济制度下,个人有相当大的自由去尝试,冒险,赢利.但是许多年来,政府一直不能解决国内存在的贫困问题.如今许多美国人仍然生活在贫困线以下.据估计,1995生活在贫困线以下的人口达3570万人,约占总人口的14%.Unemployment, inflation,financial deficit,and trade deficit are the trouble that always face the U.S..In the competitive world market the U.S.’s balance of trade has steadily worsened.The extraordinary large trade deficit can be very dangerous to the American economy in the long run.失业.通货膨胀,财政赤字和贸易赤字都是美国一直面临的问题.在竞争激烈的国际市场上,美国的贸易平衡在逐步恶化.惊人的巨大贸易赤字从长远看对美国的经济非常危险.
Chapter 19    Political Institution 政治制度
1.A workable form of government under the Constitution美国宪法下的政府   The Constitution set up a federal system of government which has two layers of rule.There is central or federal government for the nation which alone has the power to answer questions that affect the nation as a whole.There are also state and local governments.Each layer of government has separate and distinct powers laid down in the Constitution.美国宪法建立了联邦制政府,有两个管理层.一个是全国的中央或联邦政府,有权对影响整个国家的问题独自做出决定,另一个是州和地方政府.两个政府各拥有宪法分别规定的不同权力.
2.Separation of powers:checks and balances under the Constitution分权制:制约与平衡    In order to make sure that the new government would not misuse its powers,the government is divided into three branches,the legislative,the executive and the judicial, each branch has part of the powers but not all the power.And each branch of government can check or block,the actions of the other branches.The three branches are thus in balance.This is called "checks and balances".为了确保新政府不滥用自己的权力,美国政府被分为三部分:立法,行政和司法.每个部门只有部分权力而不是全部权力,每个政府部门都可以制止或阻止其他部门的行为.三个部门就这样相互均衡了.这就被称为"均衡制".
3.Safeguards for individual liberty under the Constitution个人自由的保障The Bill of Rights is the term used for the first ten amendments to the Constitution.It guarantees freedom of religion,freedom of speech,freedom of the press,freedom of assembly and petition,freedom from unreasonable searches,right to jury trial,right to due process of law and other legal rights.«人权法案»用来指宪法的前十项修正案.人权法案保证了宗教自由,言论自由,出版自由,集会和请愿自由,不受无理搜查的自由,非经陪审团不得定罪的权利,正当司法程序的权利以及其他合法权利.
4.Powers of the American President总统的权利         Legislative powers:The President shares certain lawmaking powers with Congress;立法权:总统与国会分享某些立法权;Executive powers:The highest duty of the President is the execution,or carrying out of the law;行政权:总统的最高职责是执行或贯彻法律;Powers in foreign affairs:Under the Constitution,the president is the federal official primarily responsible for the relations of the U.S. with foreign nations,he appoints ambassadors,ministers and consuls--they must be confirmed by the Senate and receives foreign ambassadors and other public officials;外交权:根据宪法,总统是负责美国与外国的关系的首席联邦官员.他任命大使,公使和领事~~他们必须经参议院批准并接见外国大使和其他公职官员;Judicial powers:The Constitution allows the President to give reprieves and pardons in federal criminal cases.A reprieve stops the carrying out of a sentence.A pardon forgives an individual for a crime he or she may have committed.司法权:宪法允许总统对联邦刑事案发布缓刑令和赦免令,缓刑令阻止审判的执行.赦免令宽恕一个已经犯罪的人.      The President can influence the judicial system by appointing federal judges and Supreme Court justices who share his ideas about the law.总统可以通过任命联邦法官和在法律上与之有相同观点的最高法院的法官来影响司法制度.
5.Powers of the House of Representatives众议院的权力       The House can introduce legislation on any subject,and the revenue bills must first come from the House of Representatives.In the case of accusation of federal officials of wrongdoings,the House has the sole right to bring charges of improper behaviour which can lead to a trial.众议院有权就任何问题提议立法,税收法案必须首先由众议院提出.在指控联邦官员犯罪的案件中,只有众议院有权指控可能导致审讯的错误行为.
6.Powers of the Senate参议院的权力      The Senate can introduce legislation on any subject,and the Senate also has certain powers especially kept to that body,including the authority to confirm presidential appointments of high officials of the federal government as well as ratify all treaties by a two-third vote.The Senate has the sole power to try the cases of accusation of federal officials of wrongdoings,and to find officials guilty or not guilty.参议院有权就任何问题提议立法,税收法案除外.它有自己独立的权力,包括有权批准总统对联邦政府高级官员的任命,2/3多数票批准各项条约.有权独自审问指控联邦官员犯罪的案件,判定官员们有罪或无罪.
7.The judicial system司法机构      The judicial branch of the federal government consists of a system of courts headed by the Supreme Courts and including subordinate courts throughout the country.联邦政府的司法机构是由最高法院为首的一系列法院组成,还包括遍布全国的各下属法院.     According to the Constitution, the judicial power of the U.S. shall be vested in one Supreme Court.The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: the Supreme Court,11 court of appeals,91 district courts,and 3 courts of special jurisdiction.U.S. judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.根据宪法规定,美国的司法权属于最高法院,司法体系结构为:最高法院,11个上诉法院,91个地方法院,3个有特殊司法权的法院,美国的法官是由总统任命并由参议院批准的.    The Supreme Court is the highest court of the U.S. and is the only organ which has the power to interpret the Constitution.The Supreme Court at present consists of a Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices.The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases:those involving foreign dignitaries,and those to which a state is a party.最高法院是美国最高等的法院,也是惟一有权解释宪法的机构,目前法院由一名首席娃哈哈官和颜悦色8名助理大法官组成.高等法院最初只对两种案件行使司法权:一种是涉及国外达官贵人的,另一种是原告或被告有一方是州政府的案件.
8.The two-party system and the characteristics of the two major parties两党制       In general,American has a two-party system.This means that two major political parties- now the Democrats and the Republicans- dominate politics at the federal,state and local levels.一般说来,美国实行的是两党制.两大主要政党为:现在的民主党和共和党,控制着联邦,州和地方各级的政治.   There have been four periods in the history of political parties in American.The first period of the party system in American refers to the appearance of the Federalists and the Anti-federalists.The third phase of the two-party system ran from the 1860s to the 1920s with the Republican Party dominating the political scene for most of the time. 美国政党的历史可分为四个时期.第一时期出现了两个主要党派~~联邦派和反联邦派.第三阶段从1860到1920年,其间绝大部分时间是共和党执政.    The two major parties are really not very different today.But there are differences between them.On economic issues,the Democrats traditionally favour government intervention while the Republicans stress the role of the market more.On social issues the Democrats support a strong social security system while the Republicans oppose large governmental social security programs.In spite of these differences,the two parties both believe in individualism,defend capitalism and uphold private ownership of means of production.如今两个主要党派区别并不太大,但还是有差异的.对于经济问题,民主党通常支持政府干预,而共和党则更强调市场的作用.对于社会问题,民主党支持强大的社会保障制度而共和党反对大规模的政府社会保障计划.尽管存在这些分歧,两党派还是都信奉个人主义,保护资本主义,坚持生产资料私有制.              
Chapter 20   Education 教育
   It is a general view that every American has the right and obligation to become educated. American believe that ,through education, an individual acquires the knowledge, skill ,attitudes and abilities which will enable him to fit into society and improve his social status. Education helps to shape the society and develop the national strength. 普遍看法是,每个美国人都有受教育的权利和义务.美国人相信,通过教育人们可以获得知识,技术,见解和能力,这将使他能够适应社会并提高自身的社会地位,教育有助于塑造社会,发展国家实力.
1.Characteristics of American education美国教育的特点      Formal education in the U.S consists of elementary,secondary and higher education.Elementary and secondary education,which forms public education,is free and compulsory.美国正规的教育由初等,中等和高等教育组成.初等,中等教育属公立教育,是免费和强制的.  In American ,there are more public elementary and secondary schools that private ones, while private colleges and universities outnumber public ones.在美国,公立中小学比私立的多,而私立的学院和大学比公立的多.   Diversity is considered to be an outstanding characteristic of Amercian education.There is not a national system of education in the United States.The federal government influences education and contributes financially to its development,but it has no control over educational policy and practice across the states.It is the state that establishes policies for the education within its boundary, so many variations can be found in the education system of the 50 states.多样性被视为美国教育的一个显著特点.美国没有全国统一的教育体制,联邦政府可以影响教育,资助教育的发展,但它不控制各州的教育政策和实施情况.而是由各州为自己辖区内的学校制订政策,所以50个州的教育体制差别很大.
2.Elementary and secondary education in the U.S.初等教育和中等教育    Elementary and secondary education in the U.S covers 12 years for ages 6 through 18. All the states have laws that require children to go to school, generally until the age of 16, unless they are severely handicapped.美国初等和中等教育共12年,从6岁到18岁.各州都有法律规定要求孩子们上学上到16岁,除非他们严重残疾.    There is not a single pattern of state administration of public education,but it is common that each state delegates its power to an elected or appointed state board of education,which is responsible for establishing policies and,through a state department of education,delegates authority for the operation of schools to local school districts.各州政府没有统一公共教育的管理模式,但一般各州都授权给一个由选举产生或聘任产生的州教育委员会,该委员会负责制定本州的教育政策,或者通过州教育局将权力下放到个地方学区.       Each local school district of American has a governing board whose major responsibilities are每个地方学区都有一个由选民选举产生的管理委员会,它主要有三个职责:①the hiring of professional and support staff聘用教师和学校员工,②determining the most suitable local curriculum决定适合当地情况的课程,③and developing and approving a budget to carry out educational programs制定和批准执行教育计划的预算.Usually the board of education employs a superintendent of school, who is the chief executive officer at the local level.通常教育委员会要选一位督学,作为地方一级的主要教育行政官员.   The typical organizational pattern for elementary and secondary schools is that of graded schools. Usually, the elementary school covers grades 1-8 and the high school 9-12.美国中小学典型的组织模式是年级制.通常,小学包括1到8年级,高中包括9到12年级.      High schools are made up of comprehensive,academic,vocational and technical schools with somewhat different tasks.高中学校包括综合的,学术的,以及职业技术学院,其教学任务各不相同.
3.Different types of colleges and universities不同类型的大学       Higher education of the U.S began with the founding of Harvard College in 1636.美国的高等教育始于1636年哈佛学院的建立.     According to the 1994 Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education,there are altogether 3,595 institutions of higher education in the U.S. Among them,125 are research universities,111doctoral universities,529 master’s comprehensive colleges and universities,637 liberal arts colleges offering BA degree,1,471 junior colleges and 722 specialized institutions.根据1994年«卡内基高等教育机构分类»,美国总共有3595个高等教育机构,其中有125所科研型大学,111所博士学位大学,529所硕士学位的综合性学院和大学,637所可授予文学学士的学士学位学院,1471所大专和722个专科机构.     The system of higher education in the U.S has three principal functions: teaching, research and public service.美国高等教育有三种主要职能:教学,研究和公众服务.  
In American, there are the best research universities such as Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia and MIT(Massachusetts Institute of Technology) in the east, as well as Stanford and Berkeley on the west coast.美国最好的科研型大学有位于东部的哈佛,耶鲁,普林斯顿,哥伦比亚和麻省理工学院,以及位于西海岸的斯坦福和伯克利大学.
4.The admission system in U.S.universities大学录取方式        Admission to an institution is determined by each college or university.It is selective and competitive,especially in private institutions.The general standards for admission include successful completion of high school,high school grade point average(GPA)(the average of all the grades one gets)and class rank, courses studied in areas of English,mathematics,and science,and results from standardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test(SAT) and American College Testing Program’s examination(ACTP).However,open admissions are also being practiced in some public institutions.Admission to some of these institutions requires a high school diploma or its equivalent,but in most cases,involves almost no restriction.Nearly all the nation’s public community colleges practice some form of open admissions.学生录取由各学院和大学自己决定.录取是有选择性和竞争性的,尤其是在私立大学.录取标准一般包括:成功地读完高中,高中的平均学分和排列名次,英语,数学和理学所学的课程以及标准化考试的分数(例如学业能力测验和美国大学测验计划的考试).然而一些公立大学也实行开放式录取,这些学校的录取只要求高中文凭或同等学历证明,多数情况下几乎没有招生限制.全国所有的社区公立学校几乎都实行某种形式的开放式录取.
5.The role of the community college社区学院的作用         Another aspect of American higher education that has drawn the world’s attentions is the community college and the role it plays.In the early 1900s,this kind of two-year colleges emerged to meet the immediate need of the economic expansion and rapid rise in immigrants of the times.Since then,it has undergone a rapid growth.另一个引起世界关注的美国高等教育的方面是社区学院及其作用.这种两年制学院出现于20世纪初期,当时是为了满足经济扩张和迅速增加的移民的燃眉之需.自那时起,它得以迅速发展.      The community college calls for education to serve the good of both the individual and society.It embodies Thomas Jefferson’s belief that an education should be practical as well as liberal.It provides general and liberal education,career and vocational education and adult and continuing education.社区学院奉行教育既为个人又为社会服务的宗旨.它包含了托马斯•杰斐逊,即教育应该是实用的又自由的.社区学院提供普通和自由教育,职业技术教育以及成人教育和继续教育.       It performs five main functions:①It prepares students for transferring to a B.A. program at a four-year institution它的学生可转入四年制学校进行学士学位学习;②it provides vocational training for people who are already working or expect to be working in the near future它为已经工作和希望在近期参加工作的人提供了职业培训;③it gives remedial instruction(instruction to overcome weakness) to higher school students who are underprepared for college academically and adults who didn’t learn basic skills in elementary or secondary school它对帮助没有考上大学的高中学生重新补习,对在中小学没有学过基本技术的成年人给予再指导;④it offers recreational,cultural activities for adults who are not seeking regular vocational or academic skills它为不再需要学习职业技术和专业知识的成年人提供娱乐和文化活动;⑤it absorbs students in a four-year program who are not qualified into a lower-status vocational program他们开设四年级课程,招收那些不适应低等职业课程的学生.      
6.Continuing education继续教育        Some colleges and universities,both public and private,offer what is now called "continuing education" programs or "lifelong education" programs of associate degrees,graduate studies or professional development.某些学院和大学,无论公立还是私立,现在也提供准学士学位课程,研究生课程或专业发展课程,这就是所谓的"继续教育"或"终身教育".       Under such a system,a woker may continue his study even on a part-time basis,and a retired person may return to college at an advanced age.在这种制度下,一个工人可以利用业余时间继续学习,一个退休的人可以在年事已高的时候返回学校学习.
7.Education reform in the 1980s and early 1990s教育改革         In the 1980s, the problems in education again drew the attention of many people.In 1983, a report entitled “A Nation At Risk” was issued which cited high rates of adult illiteracy,declining SAT scores and low scores on international comparison of knowledge by American students an examples of the decline of educational standards.在80年代,教育中存在的问题再次引起许多人的注意.1983«危险中的国家»发表,文中列举出美国教育水准下降的某些例子,如成人文盲比例高,学生技能测验的成绩下降以及美国学生在国际知识竞赛中的成绩很低等.     The report put forward five proposals.该报告提出了五点建议:①that all students graduating from high school complete what was termed as the "new basics"-four years of English,three years of mathematics,three years of science,three years of social studies,and a half year of computer science所有高中毕业生都要学完称为"新基础"的课程~~学习四年英语,三年数学,三年自然科学,三年社会学和半年计算机;②that schools at all levels expect higher achievement from their students and that four-year colleges and universities raise their admission requirement各层次的所有学校都要提高学生的学习成绩,四年制学院和大学要提高他们的录取标准;③that more time be devoted to teaching the new basics要把大部分时间用在讲授新基础课;④that the preparation of teachers be strengthened and that teaching be made a more respected and rewarded profession加强教师备课,教学应该成为一种更受尊敬和收入更高的职业;⑤that citizens require their elected representatives to support and fund these reforms公民应当要求他们选的代表支持和资助这些改革.   By the mid-1980s,a wave of education reform swept the country. 到80年代中期,教育改革浪潮席卷全国.  These reform had two focuses.这些改革有两个重点:①the raising of the standards of teaching and learning提高教学标准;②the restructuring of the schools.学校的结构改革.      On April 18,1991, President Bush issued his plan "American 2000:An Education strategy". It set six goals.1991年4月18日,布仕总统提出了他的"美国2000年:教育战略"计划.提出了6个目标.      The six goals were①ensuring that all pre-schoolers entered school ready to learn确保所有学龄前儿童都作好进入学校学习的准备;②improving the nation’s high-school graduation rate to at least 90%.提高全国高中毕业率,至少到90%;③requiring students to demonstrate competency in English,mathematics,science,history and geography学生要参加英语,数学,科学,历史和地理统考;④making American students first in the world in maths and science achievement使美国学生在数学和科学方面的成绩达到世界一流水平;⑤eliminating drugs and violence from school根除学校里的吸毒和暴力;⑥ensuring that all adult Americans were literate在美国成年人中扫除文盲.
Chapter 21    Literature文化
1.Major American writers and their works主要的作家及其著    Benjamin Franklin was the only writer in the colonial period whose works are read today."Lost time is never found again","God helps those who help themselves" are very famous saying in his Poor Richard’s Almanac.Benjamin Franklin’s uncompleted Autobiography is perhaps the first real American writing as well as the first real autobiography in English. 本杰明•富兰克大是殖民地时期唯一一位作品至今仍广为传诵的作家"光阴一去不复回","自助者天助之"都是他«穷理查德年鉴»中的名言.他没完成的自传可能是第一本真正的美国作品,也是第一本用英语写的自传.     In the early part of the 19th century, New York City was the center of American writing.Its writers were called "Knickerbockers" and the period from 1810 to 1840 is called the "Knickerbockers Era" of the American literature.19世纪初期,纽约市是美国的写作中心.这里的作家被称为"纽约市人".从1810到1840年的三十年被称为美国文学的"纽约市人时期".    Washington Irving was the first American writer who gained international fame.His most famous book The Sketch Book contains two of the best-love stories from American literature:"Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow".华盛顿•欧文是第一个获得国际知名度的美国作家,他最著名的一本书«见闻札记»包括了两个在美国文学中最受欢迎的故事«瑞普•凡•温克尔»和«睡谷的传说».      In 1836,Emerson published his famous book Nature,which is the clearest statement of Transcendentalist ideas.In 1837, Emerson gave a speech at Harvard University: "The American Scholar",which was considered the intellectual Declaration of independence. 1836年,爱默生出版了他最著名的著作«论自然».该书非常清楚的阐述了先验主义者的观点.1837年,爱默生在哈佛大学发表了题为«美国的学者»的演说,该演说被认为是知识分子的独立宣言.  In The Scarlet Letter,Hawthorne consider the effect on an individual’s character of guilty conscience,of hypocrisy and of hatred.霍桑在代表作«红字»中对造成人物性格的内疚,虚伪和憎恨的外部影响进行了思索.     Mark Twain’s famous works are:The Adventure of Tom Sawyer«汤姆•索亚历险记»;The Adventures of huckleberry Finn (his masterwork)«哈克贝利•费恩历险记»(他的代表作);A Tramp Abroad«浪迹海外»;Life on the Mississippi«密西西比河上的生活»;The Gilded Age«镀金时代»; Innocents Abroad«无知者的国外游».      In Walt Whitman’s masterpiece Leaves of Grass,he praised the ideas of equality and democracy and celebrated the dignity,the self-reliant spirit and the joy of the common man.."Song of Myself" is Whitman’s very famous works.Whitman was the first to explore fully the possibilities of free verse.沃尔特•惠特曼是探索自由诗体可能性的第一人,在他的代表作«草中集»中他颂扬平等,民主的思想,赞美尊严,自主精神和普通人的快乐.«自我之歌»是惠特曼的名作.       Emily Dickinson wrote nearly 1,800 poems and only seven of them were published during her lifetime.Death was one of the great themes of her work艾米莉•狄更生一生写了近1800首诗,而她在世时发表的却只有7首.死亡是她作品的一大主题之一.      Sister Carrie is Theodore Dreiser’s first novel.Dreiser is also famous for his Trilogy of Desire-The Financier,The Titan,and The Stoic,and An American Tragedy,which is considered to be his best.«嘉莉妹妹»是西奥多•德莱塞的第一部小说.德莱塞还因其«欲望三部曲»~«金融家»«巨人»«斯多葛»闻名于世.«美国国悲剧»被认为是他最好的一部作品.     Thomas Sterns Eliot won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1946.His masterpiece "The Waste Land" reveals the spiritual crisis of Post War Europe,and is considered the manifesto of the “Lost Generation”.托马斯•史蒂恩斯•艾略特于1946年获得诺贝尔文学奖.他的代表作«荒原»展现了战后欧洲的精神危机,被认为是"迷惘的一代"的宣言书.     Ernest Hemingway was the spokesman for the Lost Generation.He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954.The sun Also Rises is his first important novel.His other important works include Farewell to Arms,For Whom the Bell Tolls,Old Man and the Sea.欧内斯特•海明威是"迷惘的一代"的代表.1954年获得诺贝尔文学奖.«太阳照样升起»是他的第一部重要作品.他的著名作品还有«永别了,武器»«丧钟为谁而鸣»«老人与海»
2.Harlem Renaissance and black writing in American literature哈莱姆复兴和黑人写作       In the 1920s,Black Literature developed into an upsurge which has come to be known as the Harlem Renaissance. 20世纪20年代,黑人文学发展到高潮,即所谓的"哈莱姆复兴".   
Hughes and Wright were the major figures of Black writers. Hughes was regarded as Black America’s poet laureate.In his masterpiece "The Weary Blues",he explains the everyday life in Harlem.Native Son is Wright’s masterpiece.It is the first book by a Black author about the Black life. His second powerful book Black Boy was an autobiography relating the bitter experience of Wright’s youth.休斯和赖特是美国黑人作家中的主要人物.休斯被认为是美国黑人诗中的佼佼者.在他的代表作«困倦的黑人民歌»中,他讲述了哈莱姆的日常生活.«土生子»是赖特的代表作,是第一部由黑人作家描写黑人生活的书.他的第二部力作«黑小子»是一本关于他青年时期苦难经历的自传.
Chapter22   Holidays and Festivals 节日和假期
1.New Year’s Day celebration in the U.S.美国的新年庆        In the U.S.,it its a legal holiday,so most people have a day off from work.Most people like to hold big parties at private homes or go to restaurants or clubs,where they can eat a big dinner,drink champagne and dance.In many places people stay up late to wacth the old year out and the new year in.Mummers Parade held in Philadelphia is one of the most popular New Year’s Day activities.The Rose Tournament is held in Pasadena,California.在美国,这是个法定假日,因此大多数人都休假一天.大多数人喜欢在家里大团聚,去饭店或俱乐部,可以在那里吃大餐,喝香槟和跳舞.许多地方,人们一直等到深夜辞旧迎新.费城举行的化装游行是最受欢迎的元旦活动之一.在加利福尼亚的帕萨得那也举行玫瑰竞赛.
2.Practices of Valentine’s Day (February 14)圣瓦伦丁节       Valentine’s Day is a day for lovers,and one of the loveliest holidays in the U.S..It is very popular to send cards decorated with hearts and flowers to express love.Today Many Americans exchange humorous cards and some enjoy the joke of sending "Guess Who?" cards to a person he or she secretly admires.Sometimes they put love message in a heart-shaped box of chocolate, or a bunch of flowers tied with red ribbons.Universities also hold a Sweethearts’ Ball for the young students to celebrate the Valentine’s Day.圣瓦伦丁节是情人的节日,是美国人最喜欢的节日之一.人们普遍赠送装饰有两颗心和鲜花的卡片表达爱情.如今许多美国人喜欢互送幽默卡片.有些人喜欢开玩笑送一张"猜猜我是谁"的卡片给他或她悄悄爱慕的人而不签名.有时他把爱情信息放在一个心形的巧克力盒子里,或放在用红丝带系好的一束鲜花里.大学也为年轻学生举行情人舞会以庆祝圣瓦伦丁节.
3.Easter in the U.S.(A Sunday in March or April)复活节        Easter Sunday,which comes from the ancient Norwegian festival of Spring sun,is the second of the two most important religious holidays for Christians.Egg rolling,the original Easter tradition by the colonists,is held on Easter Monday morning every year on the Whiter House Lawn.Of all the symbols,the egg and the hare are considered to represent fertility and new life.复活节源于古挪威的春天太阳节,是两个最重要的基督教节日中的第二个.每年的复活节在白宫草坪举行滚彩蛋活动.它是殖民者最初的复活节传统.鸡蛋和野兔被认为是多产和新生活的象征,是复活节的象征物.
4.Independence Day (July 4)独立纪念日      Independence Day is American’s most important patriotic holiday,the birthday of the nation.Now Independence day is celebrated in all states.The army marks the occasion by firing a thirteen-gun salute every year.Many people bring their children to visit the birthplace of the nation-Philadelphia.独立日纪念是美国最重要的爱国假日,是国家的生日.现在各州都庆祝独立纪念日.军队每年放13响礼炮来庆祝这个日子.家长们也往往带孩子们去参观美国的诞生地费城.
5.Halloween (October 31)万圣节前夕       Halloween(All Hallows’ Eve) is a night-time children’s holiday.Children with curious masks go from house to house to frighten friends of neighbors and threaten them with "Trick or treat".Since 1950,more and more children have asked for pennies for UNICEF(United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) to help children in other countries,for which the 1965 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to American children.万圣节前夕是孩子们的夜晚节日.孩子们戴着奇怪的面具挨家挨户地吓唬朋友或邻居,并用"捉弄或款待"来威胁他们.从1965年起,越来越多的孩子要钱而不是要糖果,并把钱捐给联合国儿童基金会去帮助其他国家的孩子们.为此1965年美国儿童获得诺贝尔和平奖.
6.Thanksgiving Day (Fourth Thursday of November)感恩节      Thanksgiving Day is a typical American holiday.The theme of Thanksgiving has always been peace and plenty, health and happiness. Thanksgiving Day is historical,national,and religious holiday that began with the Pilgrims.The first Thanksgiving Day was celebrated by the English settlers in Plymouth,Massachusetts on December 13,1621.On Thanksgiving day,people have such traditional food as roast turkey,pumpkin pie,apples,cranberry sauce,squash,etc.感恩节是一个典型的美国节日.它的主题一直是和平,丰收,健康和快乐.感恩节是由清教徒发起的有历史意义的国家和宗教的节日.第一个感恩节是于1621年12月13日由居住在马萨诸塞州普利茅斯的英国移民庆祝的.烤火鸡，南瓜饼，越橘酱和南瓜是感恩节的传统食品
7.Christmas Day (December 25)圣诞节        Christmas Day, which celebrated the birth of Jesus Christ,is the biggest and the best-loved holiday in the United states.In many areas, the Friday,after the Thanksgiving Day is the biggest shopping day of the year-the first day of Christmas gift shopping.圣诞节是庆祝耶酥•基督诞生的节日,是美国最大,最受美国人喜欢的节日.在许多地区,感恩节后的第一个星期五是一年中最大的购物日~~是购买圣诞节礼物的第一天.