解放军文职招聘考试 英语语言学

 

第一章:

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究.)

 

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统.)

 

The scope of linguistics(语言学的研究视野):

1.phonetics(语音学)

2.phonology(音位学)

3.morphology(形态学)

4.syntax(句法学)

5.semantics(语义学)

6.pragmatics(语用学)

 

Some important distinctions in linguistics(语言学中的一些重要区分):

1.prescriptive & descriptive(规定性与描写性)

2.synchronic & diachronic(共时性与历时性)

3.speech and writing(言语与文字)

4.language and parole(语言与言语)

5.competence and performance(语言能力与语言运用)

6.traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学)

 

The difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学之间的异同点):

1.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.

2.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.

3.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.

 

The design/defining features of human language(语言的甄别性特征):

1.Arbitrariness(语言的武断性/任意性)

2. Productivity(语言的创造性)

3.Duality(语言的二重性)

4.Displacement(语言的移位性)

5.Cultural transmission(语言的文化传递性)

 

 

第二章:

Phonetics(语音学) is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.(语音学指的是对语言的语音媒介进行的研究)

 

Three branches of phonetics:

1.Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)—from the speakers’ point of view,”how speakers produce speech sounds.”

2.Auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)—from the hearer’s point of view,”how sounds are perceived.”

3.Acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)—from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.

 

Speech organs(发音器官):three important areas:

1.the pharyngeal cavity(咽腔)----the throat

2.the oral cavity(口腔)----the mouth

3.the nasal cavity(鼻腔)----the nose

 

The diagram of speech organs:

1.lips(唇) 2.teeth(齿) 3.teeth ridge(alveolus)(牙齿/龈) 4.hard palate(硬腭) 5.soft palate(velum)(软腭) 6.uvula(小舌) 7.tip of tongue(舌尖) 8.blade of tongue(舌面) 9.back of tongue(舌后) 10.vocal cords(声带) 11.pharyngeal cavity(咽腔) 12.nasal cavity(鼻腔)

 

Orthographic representation of speech sounds(语音的正字法表征):

1. A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA)国际音标.

2. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.(其基本原则是一个字母待变一个音.)

Braod transcription(宽式标音)----used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics.

Narrow transcription(严式标音)----used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics.

 

Classification of English consonants(辅音的分类):

Ⅰ、in terms of manner of articulation(发音方式):

1.stops(闭塞音)/plosives(爆破音)

2.fricatives(摩擦音)

3.affricates(塞擦音)

4.liquids(流音)

5.nasals(鼻音)

6.glides(滑音)/semivowels(半元音)

Ⅱ、in terms of place of articulation(发音部位):

1.bilabial(双唇音)

2.labiodental(唇齿音)

3.dental(齿音)

4.alveolar(齿龈音)

5.palatal(腭音)

6.velar(软腭音)

7.glottal(喉音)

 

Classification of English vowels(元音的分类):

1.monophthongs or pure/single vowels(单元音)

2.diphthongs(双元音)

 

Phonology(音位学) studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is , the ways in which speech sounds forms systems and patterns in human languages.(音位学研究的是语音如何组合在一起并在交流中传达意义.)

 

Phone(音素):a phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.(音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段.我们在语言交际中听到的、发出的语音都是音素。)

 

Phoneme(音位):a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.(音位是一个音位学的单位,而且是一个有区别意义的单位,是个抽象的单位.它不是指任何语言,而是由某特定语音情境下的某个音素来代表或实现.)

 

Allophone(音位变体) can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .

 

Phonemic contrast(音位对立):different or distinctive phonements sre in phonemic contrast.(如果相似的语音是2个区别性的音位,就可以说这两个音形成了音位对立.)

 

Complementary distribution(互补分布):allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.They do not distinguish meaning, they occur in different phonetic contexts. (如果相似的语音是同一个音位的音位变体,那么它们就不能区别意义,而是在分布上互相补充,这样两个音处于互补分布之中.)

 

Minimal pair(最小对立体):when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.( 当两个词除了一个在此语言串的同一位置上产生的语音音段之外,在其他所有方面都相同,那么这两个声音组合就可以说是形成了一个最小对立体.)

 

Some rules in phonology:

1.sequential rules(序列规则)

2.assimilation rule(同化规则)

3.deletion rule(省略规则)

 

Suprasegmental features(超切分特征):

1.stress(重音)  2.tone(音调)  3.intonation(语调)

 

What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?

答:Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors:the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.

1.Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.

2.The openness of the mouth:close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.

3.The shape of the lips:unrounded, rounded

4.Then the English vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense and lax vowels.

 

 

第三章:

Morphology(形态学) refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.(形态学就是对于词的内部结构和构成规则的研究.)

 

 

第四章:

Synatx(句法学) is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.(句法学是语言学的一个分支,它研究词是如何被组合成句子的,以及支配句子构成的规则.)

 

Category(范畴) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same of similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.(范畴是指在某一特定的语言中执行相同或相近功能的一组语言项目,如句子,名词或短语,或者动词.)

 

The ariteria on which categories are determined(判断词范畴的方法):

1. meaning(意义)  2.inflection(曲折变化)  3.distribution(分布)

 

Phrases(短语) that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements(成分): head(中心语), specifier(标志语), and complement(补语).

 

 

第五章:

Semantics(语义学) can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

 

Some views concerning the study of meaning:

1.the naming theory(命名论)

2.the conceptualist view(概念论): This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to;rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(概念论认为,在语言学的形式合它的所指之间并不存在着直接的联系;而是在意义的诠释中,它们通过大脑思维中的概念)

3.contextualism(语境论): Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context---elements closely linked with language behaviour.(意义应当从场景运用语境这些与语言行为紧密相联的成分的角度来进行研究.)

4.behaviorism(行为主义论): Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a  language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”(言者发出该形式的场景和它在听者身上所起的反应.)

 

Sense(意义) is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.(意义指的是语言形式的内在含义.)

 

Reference(指陈) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.(指陈指的是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物,是语言成分和非语言成分的经验世界之间的关系.)

 

Synonymy(同义现象) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms(同义词).(同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近.意义相同的词称为同义词.)

1.Dialectal synonys(方言同义词)

2.Stylistic synonys(文体同义词)

3.Synonys that differin their emotive or evaluative meaning(情感或评价意义存在差异的同义词)

4.Collocational synonys(搭配同义词)

5.Semantically different synonys(语义上存在差异的同义词)

 

Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms(反义词).

1.Gradable antonyms(等级反义词)

2.Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)

3. Relational oppsites(关系反义词)

 

 

第六章:

Pragmatics(语用学): It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.(语用学是研究某一语言的使用者如何利用句子而达成到成功的交际.)

 

What essentically distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.(语义学和语用学的区别就在于意义的研究中是否考虑到语境的因素.)

 

Context(语境): a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constitude knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.(一般认为语境是由言者和听者的共享知识构成的.)

 

Austin’s new model of speech acts: 1.locutionary act(言内行为) 2.illocutionary act(言外行为)  3.perlocutionary act(言后行为).

 

Searle’s classification of speech acts:

1.assertives / representatives(陈述类): stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.(陈述/描述,说出说话人认为正确的东西.)

Eg: ①I think the film is moving. ②I’m certain I have never seen the man before.

2.directives(指令类): trying to get the hearer to do sth.(试图让听话人做某事.)

Eg: I order you to leave right now.

3.commissive(承诺类): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.(对未来某行为的承诺.)

4.expressives(表达类): expressing the speaker’s psychological state about sth.(表达感情或态度<心里状态>)

Eg: I’m sorry for being late.

5.declarations(宣告类): bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs.(通过说出某事带来立即的变化.)

Eg: You’re fired.

 

Four maxims of Cooperative Principle(合作原则):

1.the maxim of quantity(数量准则): ①Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange)(<为当前会话>提供足够信息) ②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息.)

2.the maxim of quality(质量准则): ①Do not say what you believe to be false.(不说假话) ②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(不说缺乏足够证据的话)

3.the maxim of relation(关系准则): Be relevant(要有相关性)

4.the maxim of manner(方式准则): ①Avoid obscurity of expression.(避免表达艰涩) ②Avoid ambiguity.(避免歧义) ③Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)(简洁). ④Be orderly.(有条理)

 

 

第七章:

Morphological and syntactic change(形态和句法变化):

1.Change in “agreement” rule(“一致关系”规则的变化)

2.Change in negation rule(否定过则的变化)

3.Process of simplification(简化过程)

4.Loss of inflections(曲折变化的丢失)

 

Vocabulary change(词汇变化):

1.Addition of new words(新词的增加): ①Coinage(创新词) ②Clipped words(缩略词) ③Blending(紧缩法) ④Acronyms(词首字母缩略词) ⑤Back-formation(逆构词法) ⑥Functional shift(功能转换) ⑦Borrowing(借用)  

2.Loss of word(词的丢失)

3.Changes in the meaning of words(词义的变化): ①Widening of meaning(词义的变大) ②Narrowing of meaning(词义的缩小) ③Meaning shift(词义的转换)

 

Some recent trends(一些最近的趋势):

1.Moving towards greater informality(更趋向于非正式化)

2.The influence of American English(美国英语的影响)

3.The influence of science and technology(科学技术的影响):①space travel②computer and internet language③ecology(生态学)

 

Causes of the language change:

1.the rapid development of science and technology.(科学技术的快速发展)

2.social and political changes(社会和政治的变化)

3.The way children acquire the language(儿童语言习得) provides a basic cause of change.

4.economy of memory(记忆经济化)

 

 

第八章:

Sociolinguistics(社会语言学) is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.(社会语言学是语言的次领域,是研究语言和社会的关系以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系.)

 

Varieties of language:

1. Dialectal varieties(方言变体):

①Regional dialect(地域方言):口音是方言的重要特征

②Sociolect(社会方言): sociolect is a linguistic characteristic of a particular social class.(带有社会阶层特征的语言变体)

③Language and gender(语言和性别)

④Language and age(语言和年龄)

⑤Idiolect(个人语言)

⑥Ethnic dialect(种族语言)

2.Register(语域): “register”, in a restricted sense, referring to the variety of language related to one’s oppupation.(语域,与某人职业有关的语言变体.)     The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.(与场合相符合的类型就是语域.)

3.Degree of formality(正式度)

 

Five stages of formality(Martin Joos):

1.intimate(亲密的), 2.casual(随意的), 3.consultative(客气的), 4.formal,  5.frozen(冷淡的).